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This film explores direct-to-consumer genetic testing through the stories of people who have considered taking this type of genetic test.
Discover how DNA sequences code for proteins with different roles and functions.
This 3D animation shows how proteins are made in the cell from the information in the DNA code.
Debate current and potential issues in genetics and genomics with this card-based discussion activity.
This film features personal accounts from scientists from the USA and UK who were involved in the Human Genome Project.
This computer game allows you to explore the key features of a human cell. The aim of the game is to match pairs of components from within a human cell.
This multimedia resource tells the story of the Tasmanian devil and the transmissible cancer that threatens its existence
In Malaria Challenge you can explore the different stages of malaria and how scientists are trying to find new ways of preventing and treating this deadly tropical disease.
This film tells the story of how DNA sequencing was used to identify that the gene BRAF is commonly mutated in malignant melanoma, and how this has led to the development of a targeted drug against the mutation.
This animation describes how cancer grows within the body and how different factors can lead to cancer development.
This animation shows how bacteria exchange genes on small pieces of DNA called plasmids through a process called horizontal gene transfer.
This animation shows you how antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria, such as MRSA, can develop and spread, particularly in hospitals.
Take on the role of a programme manager for a community at high risk of malaria and, using the information provided, work out the best strategy for eliminating the disease from the area.
If you were given £20 million to eradicate malaria, how would you spend it? In this activity you get to find out.
What is the best way to eradicate malaria? In this activity you will explore how the different stages of the malaria lifecycle can be targeted by different treatments and prevention strategies.
Play detective and uncover how microbes spread around the surfaces you touch if you don’t wash your hands properly!
Explore antibiotic resistance by taking a closer look at the genomes of two strains of the bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus.
Discover more about the basic shape and structure of different bacteria through this balloon modelling activity.
Discover how microbes, such as bacteria and viruses, can be spread from person to person.
Through this fun activity you can learn more about the spread of microbes and their potential to infect people.
Explore the features of two closely related subspecies of the bacteria, Salmonella. Find out how the differences in their genomes results in their ability to cause two very different diseases.
Take on the role of a genome researcher and look at real cancer DNA datasets, taken from cancer patients, to find areas of mutation in the BRAF gene.
This flash animation shows you how DNA mutations are involved in the development of cancer.
This flash animation shows the processes involved in the Sanger sequencing method – the DNA sequencing method used during the Human Genome Project.
This flash animation shows the process of subcloning. Subcloning is part of the process of preparing DNA for sequencing during the Human Genome Project.
This animation provides an overview of the techniques involved in making a Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) library.
This animation shows one of the methods currently being used to sequence DNA at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute.
Step into the shoes of a genetic scientist and carry out a phenotype analysis with the model organism, zebrafish.
Use real genomic data to find mutations in a gene associated with pancreatic, lung and colorectal cancers.
This hands-on activity allows you to create your own paper model of a DNA double helix.
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January 23, 2009
Just when we all thought that perhaps the wind in the sails of the human embryonic stem cell debate had abated, Geron Inc. announced that it was approved by the FDA to conduct an experimental procedure on human subjects who have suffered from a recent spinal cord injury. The procedure would involve the injection of neural cells derived from human embryonic stem cells into a spinal cord injury site. The patients would receive two months of immune suppressant drugs and will be closely monitored for a year. The stem cells were obtained from some of the oldest lines of human embryonic stem cells that were left over from in vitro fertilization procedures.
What if this doesn’t work?
There are many human embryonic stem cell researchers who are worried about Geron doing the first human trials. Dr. Kessler, chairman of neurology and director of the stem cell institute at Northwestern University, is quoted in the New York Times as being skeptical that Geron’s technique will work on human patients. In trials with mice, Geron showed that mobility increased in the tails and legs of mice with moderate spinal cord damage. Also, the mice showed no formation of tumors, a problem with embryonic stem cell therapies. However, the mice had “moderate injuries,” and Kessler is skeptical that alleviating moderate injuries in mice will translate in the severe injuries in humans.
For those of us who are against the use of embryos for research purposes, this would be another example of the difficulty of using embryonic stem cells. This is just one more reason why more research and research dollars should be focused on adult stem cells. Adult stem cell research has been successfully used in humans for years, and is not ethically contentious.
As Christians, we also need to be mindful and prayerful of the fact that there are many people who have placed hope in embryonic stem cell research. The media has portrayed embryonic stem cells as the panacea for everything from spinal cord injuries to diabetes to Alzheimer’s. We need to be sensitive to the pain and disappointment that this could be for many people who have had to deal with permanent injuries or debilitating conditions.
What if this works?
First of all, even if this particular trial works, the scientists at Geron say that there is still many years of work to do. All they are testing now in Phase I clinical trials is if it is safe. Testing for efficacy comes later.
If this procedure works both safely and therapeutically, then we as Christians have the most difficult position. The fact that we believe the embryo is a person, and that it has value and dignity, does not change. Also, the fact that from a biblical perspective it is unethical for us to decide to destroy one life to save another, and to value one life over another, does not change. But anyone who is in this position or has a child, a spouse, or a loved one paralyzed due to a spinal cord injury must make a decision, and no matter what decision they make there will likely be feelings of guilt, regret and temptations too. Consider two examples:
1) Your spouse is in a horrible car accident and suffers from a spinal cord injury which will likely leave him/her paralyzed. You have the option of doing embryonic stem cell therapy at the injured site, which may result in your spouse regaining some mobility. You don’t think it is right to destroy an embryo because it is a person too, and is made in the image of God so it has inherent value. As you watch your spouse work with his/her injury, learning how to live life without mobility, how likely is it that you will ask yourself, “Did I do the right thing?” “If that embryo was going to die or be used in someone else anyway, why not my spouse?” How tempting would it be to carry that regret and guilt?
2) As before, your spouse is in a horrible car accident and suffers from the same injuries. This time you elect to do the embryonic stem cell therapy. Your spouse regains some mobility, but how tempting would it be to wonder about the sacrifice that was made, and the guilt associated with compromising, or to look at your children knowing that they were embryos once too?
These are not easy decisions. I will not pretend that even though as Christians we believe in the sanctity of human life, somehow it makes one decision any easier or the other decision any less tempting. Thankfully, we do not have to make these decisions at this time, and my prayer is that I hope we never do. It is said that a society can be judged by how they treat their most vulnerable. From the biblical perspective Jesus said, “Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did to me” (Matthew 25:40).
To give you two additional pieces of encouragement:
1) Adult stem cells have alleviated the effects of particular types of spinal cord injury in human patients (see www.discovery.org/a/2362 for a great article that was written in 2004, but seems quite timely now).
2) Desiring to alleviate the effects of the fall, including things like spinal cord injuries, is understandable. Whether or not we find a cure within someone’s lifetime, we have hope in God’s promise that he has conquered death and we will receive a resurrected body (1 Corinthians 15).
For more information on stem cells see these two articles from Probe.org:
© 2009 Probe Ministries
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The antibody molecule is composed of four polypeptide chains (see peptide)—two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains—joined by disulfide bridges. The light chains have a variable portion that is different in each type of antibody and is the active portion of the molecule that binds with the specific antigen. Antibodies combine with some antigens, such as bacterial toxins, and neutralize their effect; they remove other substances from circulation in body fluids; they bind certain antigens together, a process known as agglutination; and they activate complement, blood serum proteins that cause the destruction of invading cells.
See also monoclonal antibody.
Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. They are typically made of basic structural units - each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains - to form, for example, monomers with one unit, dimers with two units or pentamers with five units. Antibodies are produced by a kind of white blood cell called a B cell. There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different isotypes based on which heavy chain they possess. Five different antibody isotypes are known in mammals, which perform different roles, and help direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter.
Although the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable, allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures to exist. This region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different target, known as an antigen. This huge diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide diversity of antigens. The unique part of the antigen recognized by an antibody is called an epitope. These epitopes bind with their antibody in a highly specific interaction, called induced fit, that allows antibodies to identify and bind only their unique antigen in the midst of the millions of different molecules that make up an organism. Recognition of an antigen by an antibody tags it for attack by other parts of the immune system. Antibodies can also neutralize targets directly by, for example, binding to a part of a pathogen that it needs to cause an infection.
The large and diverse population of antibodies is generated by random combinations of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen binding sites (or paratopes), followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene, which create further diversity. Antibody genes also re-organize in a process called class switching that changes the base of the heavy chain to another, creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen specific variable region. This allows a single antibody to be used by several different parts of the immune system. Production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system.
Soluble antibodies that are secreted from an activated B cell (in its plasma cell form) bind to foreign substances and signal for their destruction by the rest of the immune system. They may also be called free antibodies (until they bind an antigen and become part of an immune complex) or secreted antibodies.
The membrane-bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin (sIg) or a membrane immunoglobulin (mIg). It is part of the B cell receptor (BCR), which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation. The BCR is composed of surface-bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimers, which are capable of signal transduction. A typical human B cell will have 50,000 to 100,000 antibodies bound to its surface. Upon antigen binding, they cluster in large patches, which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter, on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors. These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response. In humans, the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several thousand Ångstroms, which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences.
|IgA||2||Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk.|
|IgD||1||>-||IgE||1||Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms.|
|IgG||4||In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to fetus.|
|IgM||1||Expressed on the surface of B cells and in a secreted form with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG.|
The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation. Immature B cells, which have never been exposed to an antigen, are known as naïve B cells and express only the IgM isotype in a cell surface bound form. B cells begin to express both IgM and IgD when they reach maturity - the co-expression of both these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell 'mature' and ready to respond to antigen. B cell activation follows engagement of the cell bound antibody molecule with an antigen, causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody producing cell called a plasma cell. In this activated form, the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane-bound form. Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching, a mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes, IgE, IgA or IgG, that have defined roles in the immune system.
Antibodies are heavy (~150kDa) globular plasma proteins that are also known as immunoglobulins. They have sugar chains added to some of their amino acid residues. In other words, antibodies are glycoproteins. The basic functional unit of each antibody is an immunoglobulin (Ig) monomer (containing only one Ig unit); secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig units as with IgA, tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM, or pentameric with five Ig units, like mammalian IgM.
The Ig monomer is a "Y"-shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds. Each chain is composed of structural domains called Ig domains. These domains contain about 70-110 amino acids and are classified into different categories (for example, variable or IgV, and constant or IgC) according to their size and function. They have a characteristic immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a “sandwich” shape, held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and other charged amino acids.
Each heavy chain has two regions, the constant region and the variable region. The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same isotype, but differs in antibodies of different isotypes. Heavy chains γ, α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem (in a line) Ig domains, and a hinge region for added flexibility; heavy chains μ and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin domains. The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies produced by different B cells, but is the same for all antibodies produced by a single B cell or B cell clone. The variable region of each heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of a single Ig domain.
Some parts of an antibody have unique functions. The tips of the Y, for example, contain the site that bind antigen and, therefore, recognize specific foreign objects. This region of the antibody is called the Fab (fragment, antigen binding) region. It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each heavy and light chain of the antibody. The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains.
The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity. This region is called the Fc (Fragment, crystallizable) region, and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending on the class of the antibody. By binding to specific proteins the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune response for a given antigen. The Fc region also binds to various cell receptors, such as Fc receptors, and other immune molecules, such as complement proteins. By doing this, it mediates different physiological effects including opsonization, cell lysis, and degranulation of mast cells, basophils and eosinophils.
Those cells which recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors which, as the name suggests, interacts with the Fc region of IgA, IgG, and IgE antibodies. The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell; phagocytes will phagocytose, mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate, natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe. The Fc receptors are isotype-specific, which gives greater flexibility to the immune system, invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens.
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins, also known as V(D)J recombination, involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region. The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces - known as gene segments. These segments are called variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) segments. V, D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains, but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains. Multiple copies of the V, D and J gene segments exist, and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals. In the bone marrow, each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V, one D and one J gene segment (or one V and one J segment in the light chain). As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment, and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region, this process generates a huge number of antibodies, each with different paratope, and thus different antigen specificities.
After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V(D)J recombination, it cannot express any other variable region (a process known as allelic exclusion) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain.
Another mechanism that generates antibody diversity occurs in the mature B cell. Following activation with antigen, B cells begin to proliferate rapidly. In these rapidly dividing cells, the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation, by a process called somatic hypermutation (SHM). SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene, per cell division. As a consequence, any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains.
Somatic hypermutation serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody’s antigen-binding affinity. Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction (low affinity) with their antigen than the original antibody, and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction (high affinity). B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells, whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not, and will die by apoptosis. Thus, B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker affinities for function and survival. The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called affinity maturation. Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V(D)J recombination, and is dependent on help from helper T cells.
Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell, which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody (IgA, IgE, or IgG). The different classes of antibody, and thus effector functions, are defined by the constant (C) regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. Initially, naïve B cells express only cell-surface IgM and IgD with identical antigen binding regions. Each isotype is adapted for a distinct function, therefore, after activation, an antibody with a IgG, IgA, or IgE effector function might be required to effectively eliminate an antigen. Class switching allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes. Only the constant region of the antibody heavy chain changes during class switching; the variable regions, and therefore antigen specificity, remain unchanged. Thus the progeny of a single B cell can produce antibodies, all specific for the same antigen, but with the ability to produce the effector function appropriate for each antigenic challenge. Class switching is triggered by cytokines; the isotype generated depends on which cytokines are present in the B cell environment.
Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination (CSR). This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs, called switch (S) regions, found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene (except in the δ-chain). The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S-regions. The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) to the desired constant region (γ, α or ε). This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype.
Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a mammal, such as a mouse, rat or rabbit for small quantities of antibody, or goat, sheep, or horse for large quantities of antibody. Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies — multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen — in the serum, which can now be called antiserum. Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk. To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen, antibody-secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line. The fused cells are called hybridomas, and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture. Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies. Generated polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A/G or antigen-affinity chromatography.
In the 1920s, Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies were made of protein. The biochemical properties of antigen-antibody binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack. The next major advance was in the 1940s, when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock-and-key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depended more on their shape than their chemical composition. In 1948, Astrid Fagreaus discovered that B cells, in the form of plasma cells, were responsible for generating antibodies.
Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins. A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain, and their realization that this protein was the same as the Bence-Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones. Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond-linked heavy and light chains. Around the same time, antibody-binding (Fab) and antibody tail (Fc) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter. Together, these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG, a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine. While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG, other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s: Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody (IgA) and David Rowe and John Fahey identified IgD, and IgE was identified by Kikishige Ishizaka and Teruki Ishizaka as a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions.
Genetic studies revealed the basis of the vast diversity of these antibody proteins when somatic recombination of immunoglobulin genes was identified by Susumu Tonegawa in 1976.
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Scientists at the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research have identified a novel and unexpected regulatory activity of RNA at the edge of inactive chromosomal regions. In their publication in Nature Structural and Molecular Biology they showed that non-protein coding RNAs demarcate active and inactive chromosomal regions by evicting the proteins necessary for the spreading of repressive chromatin marks.
It was one of the bigger surprises of the human genome project: Even though the human genome is about 30 times bigger than the one of the roundworm C. elegans, it contains only one third more protein-coding genes than that of the simple worm. This was a shock to those who up until then quantified the complexity of an organism through the numbers of genes, and scientists had to turn their attention to the 98% of the human genome that does not code for proteins.
Since then it has become evident that vast DNA regions not only regulate gene expression and organize the architecture of the chromosomes but also contain the templates for non-coding RNAs such as tRNA, rRNA or microRNA. While the function of some of these RNAs, for example in protein synthesis and RNA processing, has been known for a while, the functional relevance for most of the other non-coding RNAs that have been catalogued remain elusive.
Marc Bühler and his team at the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research have now discovered a so far unknown activity of non-coding RNAs. They have identified and functionally characterized a novel class of non-coding RNAs, named "Borderline", which prevent the spreading of heterochromatin, a type of chromatin that is well known to repress gene activity. Spreading of heterochromatin can lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and can thus contribute to malignancy if not properly controlled. Their results have been published online in the journal Nature Structural and Molecular Biology.
Borderline RNA is produced at the boundary between actively transcribed, loose chromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin regions. These long non-coding RNAs are further processed into smaller brdrRNAs and counteract the spreading of heterochromatin through interaction with HP1, a protein that recognizes H3K9 methylation marks on chromatin and helps spread heterochromatin regions through its interactions with methylating enzymes. Upon RNA binding HP1 dissociates from the chromatin template. "That non-coding RNAs function as guide molecules is a recurring theme", said Bühler. "We could now show that the opposite takes place too. Borderline RNA counteracts the association of proteins with chromatin."
Notably, the FMI scientists showed that the Borderline type of RNA is truly non-coding as the mere synthesis of RNA independent of its sequence is sufficient to impair the spreading of heterochromatin. "Borderline RNAs are produced where they are needed to counteract the encroachment of heterochromatin into neighboring regions", said Bühler. "This is an unexpected regulatory activity in demarcating active and inactive chromosomal regions and it may well be that these mechanisms play a role in several organisms."
Explore further: A long-standing mystery in membrane traffic solved
More information: Keller, C. et al. (2013) Noncoding RNAs prevent spreading of a repressive histone mark. Nat Struct Mol Biol 20:994-1000. www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v2… /full/nsmb.2619.html
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What is Anemia?
What is Anemia and Why Am I Tired?
Reprinted with permission from DaVita, Inc.
Someone with chronic kidney disease (CKD) may also have anemia, a condition that results when red blood cell levels fall below normal ranges. A major factor in the development of anemia for those with CKD is the diseased kidneys' inability to produce erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone which stimulates the production of red blood cells in your bones. Anemia is a condition that can be diagnosed and treated.
To understand anemia, it's important to understand how your blood cells function. Your body contains two types of blood cells: white and red. White blood cells help fight infection, while red blood cells transport oxygen throughout the body. Red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin, which combines with the oxygen and releases it to your tissues. When your body is low in red blood cells and hemoglobin, you're said to be anemic. Because of the lack of oxygen in your bloodstream, you may find that you feel very tired.
How does kidney disease contribute to anemia?
There is a link between kidney disease and anemia. Red blood cells are made in your bone marrow. When your kidneys are functioning properly, they release the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn stimulates the bones to make red blood cells. However, when you have chronic kidney disease, your kidneys may not be able to produce a normal amount of EPO, and anemia results. As your kidney function declines, you may slowly develop anemia and not even be aware of it. This occurs at different times for different people, but once you reach Stage 3 of chronic kidney disease, you are likely to experience some degree of anemia.
The other contributing factor to developing anemia is a lack of iron.
Symptoms of Anemia
Some of the symptoms of anemia are as follows:
- Looking pale or "washed out"
- Tiring easily
- Heart palpitations (racing heart)
- Shortness of breath
- Hair loss
- A general sick feeling or sluggishness
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Someone at work asked me for a “fun fact” about myself for an upcoming newsletter highlighting recent accomplishments. Having just had an absolutely hellish day and night of high blood sugars, I thought … Fun Fact: My son’s blood sugar was 525 yesterday. Fun Fact: My son’s blood sugar was so high that he couldn’t take part in his hockey team’s end-of-season party. Fun Fact: It took several...
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José Onuchic has become an expert at connecting the dots, but finding connections merely implied by the dots well, that's quite a trick.
The Rice University biophysicist and his team have created a tool to do just that for proteins and, in the process, have advanced the art of predicting their form and function.
In this case, the dots are amino acid molecules known as residues that link together in chains to form proteins. Proteins are the workhorses that carry out the biological tasks essential to every living thing, but before they can go to work, they fold. Each protein has its own characteristic, folded shape, and various diseases, including cancer, have been linked to proteins that misfold or otherwise misbehave.
As computers grew more powerful over the past three decades, scientists have created many methods to predict how a particular chain of residues is likely to fold and the purpose the resulting protein serves.
Onuchic and colleagues at the Center for Theoretical Biological Physics have developed a tool, known as direct coupling analysis-fold (DCA-fold), that enhances existing methods. Details of their research appear today in the online version of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The center is currently based at the University of California at San Diego (UCSD) but is relocating to Rice's BioScience Research Collaborative.
While most protein-folding researchers look at the sequence of amino acids in a protein, either through X-ray crystallography of folded proteins or through computer simulations, Onuchic and his colleagues stepped back to look at the DNA sequences that serve as the blueprints for the proteins. By exploiting the increasingly large database of genomic sequence information, they're able to increase the accuracy of predicting the structures of folded proteins.
They start by finding points in the protein-encoding genome sequences that appear to change at the same time, even though they may be separated by great distances along the chain. The implication, Onuchic said, is that at some point in the protein's evolutionary history, the amino acids made contact, liked what they saw and kept in touch. In more technical terms, a benefit to the protein's purpose was realized and conserved.
"A lot of the decisions made through the biological process don't depend on a strong partner," said Onuchic, Rice's Harry C. and Olga K. Wiess Chair of Physics and a professor of physics and astronomy, chemistry, biochemistry and cell biology. "It's like the protein comes, kisses you once, and goes away; it's what we call very weak interaction, which we're never going to be able to see with current methods.
"But those weak interactions can cause a conformational change, transfer a phosphorus or start an entire cascade of signals," he said.
Onuchic, lead authors Joanna Sulkowska and Faruck Morcos, postdoctoral researchers at UCSD, and their colleagues looked deeply into the genomes of bacteria to pull 15 protein models; the scientists took from them about 1,000 distinct protein-coding sequences, enough for DCA-fold to be statistically accurate.
"When you look at the evolution of a particular protein in these bacteria and see just one residue change from one sequence to the next, that's probably random," Onuchic said. "But if two change at the same time, the probability is that they're changing together. It's a good sign that these things probably interact with each other."
Spotting those interactions is difficult in the proteins themselves, at least with current methods, he said. Crystallization, for instance, freezes a protein in time but provides no evidence of interactions that happened on the way to the finished product. And while computer simulations that align protein sequences are improving, their accuracy is not as good as it needs to be, he said.
But direct coupling analysis of protein-coding genes spots positions in sequences conserved across genomes that change together a change that could only happen through mechanical contact.
DCA-fold finds those subtle interactions that other methods miss. Energy landscape theories developed by Onuchic and his team predict how those interactions nudge the protein through its process. The combined result eliminates possibilities from the range of forms a protein might take.
Onuchic sees that as a way to pull a signal from all the noise.
"The entire game here is to show that by adding the genomic data to folding simulations, we can aid in structure prediction," Onuchic said. "Here, we get at least 1,000 bacterial sequences that are part of the same protein family but are not necessarily structurally similar. Then we compare the sequences and figure out which pairs of amino acids change at the same time. Although previous correlation methods could give approximate answers, our model is much more accurate.
"Once we know there's a high probability that these two amino acids came together at some point, we're constrained. If the sequence data tells me we can have structure a, b or c, we can then look to see which is consistent with the pair of contacts we now know about from the genomic data and eliminate the wrong predictions."
The new paper was one of three published by Onuchic and his colleagues this month. A second, also in PNAS, examines proteins that not only knot but sometimes form slipknots. (Read about that here.) The third, which appeared in PLoS One and on which Onuchic was a co-author, analyzes how the Interleukin-1 beta protein resolves the conflicting energeticdemands of its residues as it folds.
All of this work brings Onuchic and his colleagues from UCSD who are joining Rice closer to the purpose of their move: To bring all the data they've accumulated on biological systems to bear on the treatment of cancer.
Eukaryotic cells like those in humans (and unlike those in simple bacteria) produce many thousands of proteins; with rapid advances in the capability to sequence genomes, the researchers hope to apply their technique to look for what causes diseases and how to cure them.
"I think DCA has enormous potential," Onuchic said. "The amount of genome data that's being created is growing exponentially. In the future, if we're patient, instead of comparing sequences of different bacteria as we do here, perhaps we can do time evolution of sequences. Then we can figure out if a particular disease mechanism comes from a pair of residues that switch at the same time and instead of looking at different animals, we can see changes in one patient over time."
Co-authors of the paper are Terence Hwa, a professor in the Department of Physics at UCSD, and Martin Weigt, a professor at Pierre and Marie Curie University, Paris.
Explore further: Bacterial protein called UmuD may prevent antibiotic resistance
More information: Read the open-access paper at www.pnas.org/content/early/201… 864109.full.pdf+html
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- DNA Forum
|Ryan B ||03-25-2007 02:18 PM |
Why is DNA called an acid, when infact in it there is a base (adenine, guanine,thymine,cytosine)?
|Devilinme ||03-25-2007 02:45 PM |
DNA is a nucleic acid, and as you stated is based from adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine which are not bases but rather sugars.
|jowpers ||03-25-2007 03:17 PM |
The comment above is incorrect. DNA consists of a backbone of phosphate and deoxyribose (a sugar). Nitrogenous bases connect the two. The term base is not used in the literal chemical sense (some bases act as bases, some act as acids). Intact nucleic acids are capable of donating hydrogen protons, hence they behave as weak acids.
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Onion (Allium) cells in different phases of the cell cycle
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, and are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology.
Cells consist of a protoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including most bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain about 100 trillion (1014) cells. Most plant and animal cells are visible only under the microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.
The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the biological unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.
- 1 Anatomy
- 2 Subcellular components
- 3 Structures outside the cell membrane
- 4 Cellular processes
- 5 Multicellularity
- 6 Origins
- 7 History of research
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 External links
There are two types of cells, eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotes, which do not. Prokaryotic cells are usually single-celled organisms, while eukaryotic cells can be either single-celled or part of multicellular organisms.
|Typical organisms||bacteria, archaea||protists, fungi, plants, animals|
|Typical size||~ 1–5 µm||~ 10–100 µm|
|Type of nucleus||nucleoid region; no true nucleus||true nucleus with double membrane|
|DNA||circular (usually)||linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins|
|RNA/protein synthesis||coupled in the cytoplasm||RNA synthesis in the nucleus
protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
|Ribosomes||50S and 30S||60S and 40S|
|Cytoplasmic structure||very few structures||highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton|
|Cell movement||flagella made of flagellin||flagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin|
|Mitochondria||none||one to several thousand (though some lack mitochondria)|
|Chloroplasts||none||in algae and plants|
|Organization||usually single cells||single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells|
|Cell division||Binary fission (simple division)||Mitosis (fission or budding)
|chromosomes||single chromosome||more than one chromosome|
|membranes||none||has membrane bound organelles|
Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, as they have signaling and self-sustaining processes. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most of the prokaryotes are smallest of all organisms. Most prokaryotes range from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter.
A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:
- On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells.
- Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a cell wall covering a plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called a capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea). The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall.
- Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. The prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular. Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.
Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus". Other differences include:
- The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
- The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
- Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be "viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
- Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Eukaryotic flagella are less complex than those of prokaryotes.
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells (except red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin) possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article lists these primary components of the cell, then briefly describes their function.
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-permeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.
The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis. The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin. The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues. But some of the subunit protein of intermediate filaments include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins), neurofilament proteins (NF - L, NF - M).
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. RNA is used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).
A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.
Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound.
There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.
- Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.
- Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: generate energy for the cell. Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes. Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun's energy to make ATP through photosynthesis.
- Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes. The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release.
- Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
- Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.
- Centrosome – the cytoskeleton organiser: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
- Vacuoles: Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of plants than animals.
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic
- Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes).
Structures outside the cell membrane
Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the impermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.
Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of pectin, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.
A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. (See Bacterial capsule.) Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.:87
Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. Are most commonly found in bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as well.
They are short and thin hair-like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (adherence). There are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in conjunction. (See Pilus.)
Growth and metabolism
Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less chemically complex sugar molecule called glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a form of energy, through two different pathways.
The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as anaerobic metabolism. Each reaction produces ATP and NADH, which are used in cellular functions, as well as two pyruvate molecules that derived from the original glucose molecule. In prokaryotes, all energy is produced by glycolysis.
The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle, is performed only by eukaryotes and involves further breakdown of the pyruvate produced in glycolysis. It occurs inside the mitochondria and generates much more energy than glycolysis, mostly through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.
Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.
Movement or motility
In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins. The process is divided into three steps – protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.
In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others. Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype but different cell type due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain.
Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell, called a zygote, that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division).
Origin of multicellularity
Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times, including in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, Magnetoglobus multicellularis or Methanosarcina. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants. It evolved repeatedly for plants (Chloroplastida), once or twice for animals, once for brown algae, and perhaps several times for fungi, slime molds, and red algae. Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships.
The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria-like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon.
Origin of the first cell
There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on the early Earth. They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites (see Murchison meteorite), created at deep-sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment). There is little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were. RNA is thought to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis), but some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, such as clay or peptide nucleic acid.
Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.
Origin of eukaryotic cells
The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are descended from ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, which were endosymbiosed by an ancestral archaean prokaryote.
History of research
- 1632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek teaches himself to make lenses, constructs basic optical microscopes and draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.
- 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope. He coins the term cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") in his book Micrographia (1665).
- 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.
- 1855: Rudolf Virchow states that new cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division (omnis cellula ex cellula).
- 1859: The belief that life forms can occur spontaneously (generatio spontanea) is contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion).
- 1931: Ernst Ruska builds the first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin. By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.
- 1953: Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double helix structure of DNA on February 28.
- 1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the endosymbiotic theory.
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- "... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular [..] these pores, or cells, [..] were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this. . ." – Hooke describing his observations on a thin slice of cork. Robert Hooke
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cell (biology)|
- MBInfo - Descriptions on Cellular Functions and Processes
- MBInfo - Cellular Organization
- Inside the Cell - a science education booklet by National Institutes of Health, in PDF and ePub.
- Cells Alive!
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- New Microscope Produces Dazzling 3D Movies of Live Cells, March 4, 2011 - Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
- WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell lineage - Visualize the entire cell lineage tree of the nematode C. elegans
- Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.
- Lodish H, Berk A, Matsudaira P, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Zipurksy SL, Darnell J (2004). Molecular Cell Biology (5th ed.). WH Freeman: New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-7167-4366-8.
- Cooper GM (2000). The cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C: ASM Press. ISBN 0-87893-102-3.
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Latest Cellular differentiation Stories
Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI) researchers have a new model for how the kidney repairs itself, a model that adds to a growing body of evidence that mature cells are far more plastic than had previously been imagined.
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University of Toronto researchers have developed a method that can rapidly screen human stem cells and better control what they will turn into.
In a feat of modern-day alchemy with huge potential for regenerative medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine scientists have developed a fast, efficient way to turn cells extracted from routine liposuction into liver cells.
Bioengineers at the University of California, Berkeley, have shown that physical cues can replace certain chemicals when nudging mature cells back to a pluripotent stage, capable of becoming any cell type in the body.
Researchers at the University of Illinois at Chicago have identified a protein expressed by human bone marrow stem cells that guides and stimulates the formation of blood vessels.
New research has shown that the stomach naturally produces more stem cells than previously realized, likely for repair of injuries from infections, digestive fluids and the foods we eat.
A new method for creating stem cells for the human liver and pancreas, which could enable both cell types to be grown in sufficient quantities for clinical use, has been developed by scientists.
Increasing evidence suggests that epigenetic regulation is associated with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and targeting it may one day lead to novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, research suggests.
- To play, gamble.
- To impose upon; delude; trick; humbug; also, to joke; chaff.
- A deceitful game or trick; trickery; humbug; nonsense.
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EVENT: Advances in the design and operation of particle accelerators built for basic physics research are leading to the rapid evolution of machines that deliver cancer-killing beams. Hear about the latest developments and challenges in this field from a physicist, a radiobiologist, and a clinical oncologist, and participate in a discussion about cost, access, and ethics at a symposium organized by the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory ("Targeting Tumors: Ion Beam Accelerators Take Aim at Cancer") and at a related press briefing--both to be held at the 2014 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
WHEN: Sunday, February 16, 2014, 8:00 a.m. Central Time (symposium) and 11:00 a.m. (press briefing)
WHERE: Symposium: Hyatt Regency Chicago, Grand Ballroom A; Press Briefing: Swissotel, AAAS briefing room, adjacent to the newsroom, second floor.
WEBCAST: For reporters unable to attend the meeting, the press briefing portion will be webcast live and archived in the AAAS meeting newsroom.
DETAILS: As particle accelerator technology has been incorporated into the clinical practice of treating cancer, the trend has been toward less expensive, more versatile particle beam delivery systems, designed for improved efficacy and greater access for cancer patients around the world. Proton and ion beams are particularly attractive in treating cancer because they deposit most of their energy where the beam stops (i.e., in the tumor) rather than in the tissue through which they travel. As a result, particle beams can deliver cell-killing energy with extreme precision, allowing less damage to adjacent healthy tissue than conventional x-ray or electron radiation treatments.
Protons have been in use for some time at several facilities in the U.S. Beams of heavier ions such as carbon offer promise of even greater efficacy, based on the physics and expected radiobiological effects, as well as on preliminary evidence from facilities operating in Europe and Japan. There are currently no carbon therapy cancer treatment facilities operating in the U.S., and while experience from Europe and Asia suggests that the cost of building one would be considerable, the U.S. National Cancer Institute recently announced a funding opportunity to encourage and support plans for a center for particle beam radiation therapy research.
This symposium and press briefing will explore the scientific rationale behind hadron beam therapy (using protons and heavier ions such as carbon) from the perspectives of a physicist who designs state-of-the-art particle accelerators, a radiobiologist exploring how those particle beams affect cells and tumors, and a radiation oncologist in clinical practice. The session will also address the questions of how to test the relative efficacy of hadron therapy versus conventional radiation treatment and ethical issues related to clinical trials, how to leverage scientific expertise to bring advances driven by basic research to the benefit of society at large, and potential ways to increase treatment access for patients through cost-saving accelerator designs.
Stephen Peggs, Physicist, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Adjunct Professor, Stony Brook University (Advances in Accelerator Science Deliver Precision Beams for Cancer Therapy)
Kathryn Held, Radiation Biologist, Associate Professor of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School; associate radiation biologist, Massachusetts General Hospital (Charged Particles for Cancer Treatment: The Benefits of Ions over Photons)
Hak Choy, Chair, Department of Radiation Oncology at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (The Clinical Perspective: Does Proton/Ion Beam Therapy Work?)
Discussant: Ken Peach, Professor, Particle Therapy Cancer Research Institute at Oxford Martin School, Oxford University
Moderator: James Deye, Program Director, Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, Radiation Research Program, National Cancer Institute
This session was organized by Karen McNulty Walsh, Media & Communications Office, Brookhaven National Laboratory with Co-Organizers Stephen Peggs, Physicist, Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Eric Colby, Office of Science, U.S. Department of Energy.
For more details, including links to talk summaries, see: http://aaas.confex.com/aaas/2014/webprogram/Session6784.html
Brookhaven Lab's role in this research and this symposium is funded by the DOE Office of Science.
DOE's Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit science.energy.gov.
One of ten national laboratories overseen and primarily funded by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Brookhaven National Laboratory conducts research in the physical, biomedical, and environmental sciences, as well as in energy technologies and national security. Brookhaven Lab also builds and operates major scientific facilities available to university, industry and government researchers. Brookhaven is operated and managed for DOE's Office of Science by Brookhaven Science Associates, a limited-liability company founded by the Research Foundation for the State University of New York on behalf of Stony Brook University, the largest academic user of Laboratory facilities, and Battelle, a nonprofit applied science and technology organization.
Karen McNulty Walsh | EurekAlert!
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Because they are regularly subjected to heavy vehicle traffic, emissions, moisture and salt, above- and underground parking garages, as well as bridges, frequently experience large areas of corrosion. Most inspection systems to date have only been capable of inspecting smaller surface areas.
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PheGenI: The Phenotype-Genotype IntegratorA January 2013 update to the PheGenI resource of dbGaP. Changes include: autocomplete search for Traits; example searches; source choice; and enhanced ...
A Beginner's Guide to Punnett SquaresPaul Andersen introduces the Punnett Square as a a powerful tool in genetic analysis. He tries to address major misconceptions that students have when use a ...
Acquired B PhenotypeThis podlet is a ten minute (or so) tutorial on the famous but uncommonly seen "Acquired B Phenotype." Acquired B is extremely popular with test question ...
Genetics Vocabulary TutorialA video tutorial and review of important genetics concepts and vocabulary terms! Words like genes, DNA, alleles, genotype, phenotype, heredity, homozygous ...
The Phenomizer - A tutorialA short tutorial on how to use the Phenomizer. Further links: http://compbio.charite.de/phenomizer http://www.human-phenotype-ontology.org.
Punnett Square TutorialHow to create a punnett square and find the phenotype ratio for multiple traits.
Association mapping using PLINK softwarePLINK is a free, open-source whole genome association analysis toolset, designed to perform a range of basic, large-scale analyses in a computationally ...
Tutorial for Quality Control Web ApplicationThis is a video tutorial on using the PhenoDCC web application for quality control of phenotype data.
Project Unity tutorialProject Unity is a collaborative network to host, manage, analyze and share phenotypes and genotypes studies of plants and animals, provided for free to ...
Genotype and PhenotypeA brief introduction to phenotype and genotype for general biology students at Wood River High School. General Biology A Unit 5: Expressing Yourself.
PhenotypeScience Help at Brightstorm! http://brightstorm.com/science The description of phenotype.
Punnett Square TutorialHow to use punnett squares to determine genotypic and phenotypic ratio's.
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Bioinformatics Module - Lecture Part 1 of 5http://mdcune.psych.ucla.edu/modules/bioinformatics The Bioinformatics teaching module contains an image database, student tutorials, and online resources to ...
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|A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®|
On this page:
Reviewed May 2011
What is the official name of the FAM134B gene?
The official name of this gene is “family with sequence similarity 134, member B.”
FAM134B is the gene's official symbol. The FAM134B gene is also known by other names, listed below.
Read more about gene names and symbols on the About page.
What is the normal function of the FAM134B gene?
The FAM134B gene provides instructions for making a protein important for the survival of sensory and autonomic nerve cells (neurons). Sensory neurons transmit pain, touch, and temperature sensations. Autonomic neurons help control involuntary functions of the body such as heart rate and blood pressure. Within neurons, the FAM134B protein is found in a structure called the Golgi apparatus, which is important for distribution of proteins to the cell. However, the function of the FAM134B protein is unknown. Studies have shown that neurons in which the FAM134B protein is absent die by a process of self-destruction called apoptosis.
How are changes in the FAM134B gene related to health conditions?
Where is the FAM134B gene located?
Cytogenetic Location: 5p15.1
Molecular Location on chromosome 5: base pairs 16,472,815 to 16,617,057
The FAM134B gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 5 at position 15.1.
More precisely, the FAM134B gene is located from base pair 16,472,815 to base pair 16,617,057 on chromosome 5.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? in the Handbook.
Where can I find additional information about FAM134B?
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about FAM134B helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
What other names do people use for the FAM134B gene or gene products?
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? in the Handbook.
Where can I find general information about genes?
The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language.
These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful.
What glossary definitions help with understanding FAM134B?
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary.
See also Understanding Medical Terminology.
References (5 links)
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.
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Reviewed March 2006
What is the official name of the GLI3 gene?
The official name of this gene is “GLI family zinc finger 3.”
GLI3 is the gene's official symbol. The GLI3 gene is also known by other names, listed below.
What is the normal function of the GLI3 gene?
The GLI3 gene belongs to a family of genes that are involved in the normal shaping (patterning) of many tissues and organs during embryonic development. To carry out this role, proteins made by genes in the GLI family attach to specific regions of DNA and help control whether particular genes are turned on or off (gene expression). GLI proteins are called transcription factors on the basis of this action.
Proteins in the GLI family function in the same molecular pathway as a protein called Sonic Hedgehog. This pathway is essential for early development. It plays a role in cell growth, cell specialization, and the patterning of structures such as the brain and limbs. Depending on signals from Sonic Hedgehog, the GLI3 protein can either turn on (activate) or turn off (repress) other genes. Researchers are working to identify the genes targeted by the GLI3 protein during development.
How are changes in the GLI3 gene related to health conditions?
- Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome - caused by mutations in the GLI3 gene
Several types of mutations in the GLI3 gene have been identified in people with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome. These genetic changes include insertions or deletions of a small amount of DNA and changes in single DNA building blocks (base pairs) in critical regions of the gene. In other cases, this condition is caused by chromosomal abnormalities involving the region of chromosome 7 that contains the GLI3 gene. The genetic changes that cause Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome prevent one copy of the gene in each cell from producing any functional GLI3 protein. As a result, only half the normal amount of this protein is available to control the expression of target genes during embryonic development. It remains unclear how a reduced amount of the GLI3 protein disrupts development of the limbs, head, and face and causes the specific features of Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome.
- Pallister-Hall syndrome - caused by mutations in the GLI3 gene
Most of the mutations responsible for Pallister-Hall syndrome occur near the middle of the GLI3 gene. These genetic changes typically create a premature stop signal in the instructions for making the GLI3 protein. As a result, cells produce an unusually short version of the protein. Unlike the full-length GLI3 protein, which can turn target genes on or off, the short protein can only turn off (repress) the expression of target genes. Although this defect clearly disrupts aspects of embryonic development, it is not known how the altered function of the GLI3 protein leads to the varied signs and symptoms of Pallister-Hall syndrome.
- other disorders - caused by mutations in the GLI3 gene
Mutations in the GLI3 gene have been found in people with several forms of polydactyly (the presence of extra fingers and/or toes). These cases are described as isolated or nonsyndromic because the polydactyly occurs without other signs and symptoms, such as brain abnormalities or widely spaced eyes. GLI3 mutations can cause two types of polydactyly that are characterized by an extra digit next to the little finger or the small toe. These conditions are called postaxial polydactyly type A (PAP-A) and type A/B (PAP-A/B). Another form of polydactyly, preaxial polydactyly type IV (PPD-IV), can also result from mutations in the GLI3 gene. People with this condition have extra digits next to the thumb or big toe (hallux) and fused skin between some fingers and toes (cutaneous syndactyly). PPD-IV also can include extra digits in other positions on the hands or feet. The pattern of polydactyly seen with PPD-IV is similar to that of Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome, and some researchers suggest that PPD-IV may be a very mild form of that syndrome.
Where is the GLI3 gene located?
Cytogenetic Location: 7p13
Molecular Location on chromosome 7: base pairs 41,960,948 to 42,264,111
The GLI3 gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 7 at position 13.
More precisely, the GLI3 gene is located from base pair 41,960,948 to base pair 42,264,111 on chromosome 7.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/howgeneswork/genelocation) in the Handbook.
Where can I find additional information about GLI3?
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about GLI3 helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
- PubMed - Recent literature (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%28%28GLI3%5BTIAB%5D%29%20OR%20%28GLI-Kruppel%20family%20member%20GLI3%5BTIAB%5D%29%29%20AND%20%28%28Genes%5BMH%5D%29%20OR%20%28Genetic%20Phenomena%5BMH%5D%29%29%20AND%20english%5Bla%5D%20AND%20human%5Bmh%5D%20AND%20%22last%201800%20days%22%5Bdp%5D)
OMIM - Genetic disorder catalog
- GLI-KRUPPEL FAMILY MEMBER 3 (http://omim.org/entry/165240)
- POLYDACTYLY, POSTAXIAL, TYPE A1 (http://omim.org/entry/174200)
- POLYDACTYLY, PREAXIAL IV (http://omim.org/entry/174700)
Research Resources - Tools for researchers
- Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology (http://atlasgeneticsoncology.org/Genes/GC_GLI3.html)
- HGNC Gene Family: Zinc fingers, C2H2-type (http://www.genenames.org/genefamilies/ZNF)
- HGNC Gene Symbol Report (http://www.genenames.org/cgi-bin/gene_symbol_report?q=data/hgnc_data.php&hgnc_id=4319)
- NCBI Gene (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2737)
What other names do people use for the GLI3 gene or gene products?
- GLI-Kruppel family member GLI3 (Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome)
- oncogene GLI3
- zinc finger protein GLI3
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/naming) in the Handbook.
What glossary definitions help with understanding GLI3?
big toe ;
gene expression ;
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference
- Biesecker LG, Johnston J. Syndromic and non-syndromic GLI3 phenotypes. Clin Genet. 2005 Sep;68(3):284; author reply 285. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16098019?dopt=Abstract)
- Fujioka H, Ariga T, Horiuchi K, Otsu M, Igawa H, Kawashima K, Yamamoto Y, Sugihara T, Sakiyama Y. Molecular analysis of non-syndromic preaxial polydactyly: preaxial polydactyly type-IV and preaxial polydactyly type-I. Clin Genet. 2005 May;67(5):429-33. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811011?dopt=Abstract)
- Gene Review: Greig Cephalopolysyndactyly Syndrome (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1446)
- Gene Review: Pallister-Hall Syndrome (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1465)
- Hu MC, Mo R, Bhella S, Wilson CW, Chuang PT, Hui CC, Rosenblum ND. GLI3-dependent transcriptional repression of Gli1, Gli2 and kidney patterning genes disrupts renal morphogenesis. Development. 2006 Feb;133(3):569-78. Epub 2006 Jan 5. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16396903?dopt=Abstract)
- Johnston JJ, Olivos-Glander I, Killoran C, Elson E, Turner JT, Peters KF, Abbott MH, Aughton DJ, Aylsworth AS, Bamshad MJ, Booth C, Curry CJ, David A, Dinulos MB, Flannery DB, Fox MA, Graham JM, Grange DK, Guttmacher AE, Hannibal MC, Henn W, Hennekam RC, Holmes LB, Hoyme HE, Leppig KA, Lin AE, Macleod P, Manchester DK, Marcelis C, Mazzanti L, McCann E, McDonald MT, Mendelsohn NJ, Moeschler JB, Moghaddam B, Neri G, Newbury-Ecob R, Pagon RA, Phillips JA, Sadler LS, Stoler JM, Tilstra D, Walsh Vockley CM, Zackai EH, Zadeh TM, Brueton L, Black GC, Biesecker LG. Molecular and clinical analyses of Greig cephalopolysyndactyly and Pallister-Hall syndromes: robust phenotype prediction from the type and position of GLI3 mutations. Am J Hum Genet. 2005 Apr;76(4):609-22. Epub 2005 Feb 28. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15739154?dopt=Abstract)
- Johnston JJ, Olivos-Glander I, Turner J, Aleck K, Bird LM, Mehta L, Schimke RN, Heilstedt H, Spence JE, Blancato J, Biesecker LG. Clinical and molecular delineation of the Greig cephalopolysyndactyly contiguous gene deletion syndrome and its distinction from acrocallosal syndrome. Am J Med Genet A. 2003 Dec 15;123A(3):236-42. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14608643?dopt=Abstract)
- Kalff-Suske M, Wild A, Topp J, Wessling M, Jacobsen EM, Bornholdt D, Engel H, Heuer H, Aalfs CM, Ausems MG, Barone R, Herzog A, Heutink P, Homfray T, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, König R, Kunze J, Meinecke P, Müller D, Rizzo R, Strenge S, Superti-Furga A, Grzeschik KH. Point mutations throughout the GLI3 gene cause Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome. Hum Mol Genet. 1999 Sep;8(9):1769-77. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10441342?dopt=Abstract)
- Kang S, Graham JM Jr, Olney AH, Biesecker LG. GLI3 frameshift mutations cause autosomal dominant Pallister-Hall syndrome. Nat Genet. 1997 Mar;15(3):266-8. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9054938?dopt=Abstract)
- Kang S, Rosenberg M, Ko VD, Biesecker LG. Gene structure and allelic expression assay of the human GLI3 gene. Hum Genet. 1997 Dec;101(2):154-7. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9402960?dopt=Abstract)
- NCBI Gene (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2737)
- Radhakrishna U, Bornholdt D, Scott HS, Patel UC, Rossier C, Engel H, Bottani A, Chandal D, Blouin JL, Solanki JV, Grzeschik KH, Antonarakis SE. The phenotypic spectrum of GLI3 morphopathies includes autosomal dominant preaxial polydactyly type-IV and postaxial polydactyly type-A/B; No phenotype prediction from the position of GLI3 mutations. Am J Hum Genet. 1999 Sep;65(3):645-55. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10441570?dopt=Abstract)
- Shin SH, Kogerman P, Lindström E, Toftgárd R, Biesecker LG. GLI3 mutations in human disorders mimic Drosophila cubitus interruptus protein functions and localization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Mar 16;96(6):2880-4. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077605?dopt=Abstract)
- Villavicencio EH, Walterhouse DO, Iannaccone PM. The sonic hedgehog-patched-gli pathway in human development and disease. Am J Hum Genet. 2000 Nov;67(5):1047-54. Epub 2000 Sep 21. Review. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11001584?dopt=Abstract)
- Wild A, Kalff-Suske M, Vortkamp A, Bornholdt D, König R, Grzeschik KH. Point mutations in human GLI3 cause Greig syndrome. Hum Mol Genet. 1997 Oct;6(11):1979-84. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9302279?dopt=Abstract)
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for
professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about
a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified
See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/findingprofessional) in the Handbook.
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|A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®|
On this page:
Reviewed February 2011
What is the official name of the HES7 gene?
The official name of this gene is “hes family bHLH transcription factor 7.”
HES7 is the gene's official symbol. The HES7 gene is also known by other names, listed below.
Read more about gene names and symbols on the About page.
What is the normal function of the HES7 gene?
The HES7 gene provides instructions for making a transcription factor, which is a protein that attaches (binds) to specific regions of DNA and helps control the activity of particular genes. The HES7 protein controls the activity of genes in the Notch pathway, an important pathway in embryonic development. The Notch pathway plays a critical role in the development of vertebrae. Specifically, the HES7 protein and the Notch pathway are involved in separating future vertebrae from one another during early development, a complex process called somite segmentation. Although the exact mechanism of somite segmentation is unclear, it appears to require the activity of several proteins in the Notch pathway, including the NOTCH1 protein and the HES7 protein, to be turned on and off in a specific pattern (oscillate).
The HES7 protein turns off (represses) the activity of genes in the Notch pathway, which helps to regulate the activity of the NOTCH1 protein.
Does the HES7 gene share characteristics with other genes?
The HES7 gene belongs to a family of genes called bHLH (basic helix-loop-helix).
A gene family is a group of genes that share important characteristics. Classifying individual genes into families helps researchers describe how genes are related to each other. For more information, see What are gene families? in the Handbook.
How are changes in the HES7 gene related to health conditions?
Where is the HES7 gene located?
Cytogenetic Location: 17p13.1
Molecular Location on chromosome 17: base pairs 8,120,589 to 8,125,738
The HES7 gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 17 at position 13.1.
More precisely, the HES7 gene is located from base pair 8,120,589 to base pair 8,125,738 on chromosome 17.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? in the Handbook.
Where can I find additional information about HES7?
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about HES7 helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
What other names do people use for the HES7 gene or gene products?
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? in the Handbook.
Where can I find general information about genes?
The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language.
These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful.
What glossary definitions help with understanding HES7?
acids ; amino acid ; arginine ; aspartic acid ; class ; DNA ; embryonic ; enhancer ; gene ; isoleucine ; malformation ; mutation ; protein ; transcription ; transcription factor ; tryptophan ; tyrosine ; valine
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary.
See also Understanding Medical Terminology.
References (8 links)
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.
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Tissue Collection for Disease Modeling
ICOC Funds Committed:
Stem Cell Use:
Hepatitis C and fatty liver disease are the two most common liver diseases in California. Individuals from different backgrounds are susceptible to these liver diseases, but they have unique genetic profiles that may influence the severity of disease and the response to specific therapies. Technology now makes it possible to generate stem cells from a person’s own skin. These cells can subsequently be used to generate liver cells identical to those from the original donor. Using this approach, scientists can perform research directly on an individual’s own liver cells to identify features that make the cells susceptible or resistant to disease and drug therapy. In this project, the research team will collect blood and skin tissue from people with liver disease and from healthy control subjects. The donated tissues will be placed in a "bank" for the production of stem cells. The overall goal is for the donated cells to be made available to scientists who will convert them to liver cells, and then carefully study them to learn more about liver disease. Research such as this is extremely valuable because it allows patients and volunteers to make a very personal contribution to the understanding of liver disease. The materials donated to this tissue "bank" will be a resource to the scientific community for many years.
Statement of Benefit to California:
Hepatitis C and fatty liver disease are the two most common liver diseases affecting the citizens of California. Together they afflict one in every 12 people in the state and kill roughly 4,000 state residents each year. Researchers in California are actively seeking new information about the causes of and treatments for liver disease; their progress will be greatly accelerated by the opportunity to directly study the biology of diseased patients. The goal of this project is to build a "bank" of stem cells from local patients with liver disease. Patient donors will come from many different backgrounds, reflecting the great diversity of California. The bank, once established, will be a tremendous resource for medical research because the banked cells will be renewable and made available to the entire research community. Banked stem cells will enable researchers to study the genetics and biology of liver disease and to test new therapies. Importantly, they will give researchers an opportunity to study liver disease in its most important context - the affected patient. The research made possible through this effort will greatly enhance our understanding of liver disease; this will in turn reduce the negative impact of liver disease on the health and well-being of California residents.
- The goal of this project is to collect blood or skin tissues from subjects with liver disease to learn more about the factors that predispose individuals to their conditions. We are focusing our attention on subjects with two specific liver diseases: hepatitis C and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (the latter is termed "NASH" or "fatty liver disease"). These are the two most common causes of liver disease in California. In the case of hepatitis C, research to date shows that factors such as race, genetic makeup and immunologic makeup influence individual responses to infection by the hepatitis C virus as well as responses to antiviral drug treatment. Our goal is to recruit individuals with diverse backgrounds and responses to hepatitis C infection and treatment, to enable scientists to identify the determinants of susceptibility or resistance to hepatitis C-related liver disease. In the case of fatty liver disease, we are recruiting subjects who have significant liver injury due to the accumulation of fat, proven on a liver biopsy (NASH). NASH is typically found in subjects who are overweight, and who often have additional health problems such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes. We are also looking for subjects who are at risk for NASH and have prominent fat accumulation in the liver on a biopsy, but have no evidence of actual liver injury. As with hepatitis C, the goal with fatty liver disease is to accumulate a cohort of subjects with diverse backgrounds and a spectrum of disease severity, to enable scientists to determine the factors that predispose some individuals at risk to serious liver disease while sparing others.
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What Is a Breast Self-exam?
Steps for a Breast Self-exam
- Lie down with a pillow under your left shoulder. Place your left arm behind your head.
- Use the finger pads of your right hand to feel for lumps in your left breast. Move the finger pads in little circles to feel for any lumps.
- Use varying levels of pressure to feel the breast tissue:
A firm ridge in the lower curve of each breast is normal.
- Light pressure to feel tissue beneath the skin
- Medium pressure to feel deeper tissue
- Firm pressure to feel tissue near the chest and ribs
- Move around the breast using a up and down pattern. Check the whole breast area—from the bottom of the breast up to the collar bone, as well as from the chest bone to the underarm.
- Repeat the exam on your right breast, using the finger pads of your left hand.
- Stand in front of a mirror so that you can clearly see both of your breasts. Press your hands firmly on your hips. Look for any changes in the size, shape, or contour of the breasts. See if the skin (including the nipple) has any puckering, dimpling, scaliness, or redness.
- Lastly, check each underarm while you are sitting or standing. Raise your arm a little so that you can feel the underarm area. Note: If you raise your arm too high, it will be harder to feel this area.
American Cancer Society http://www.cancer.org
Women's Health—Office on Women's Health http://www.womenshealth.gov
Canadian Breast Cancer Foundation http://www.cbcf.org
Canadian Cancer Society http://www.cancer.ca
American Cancer Society guidelines for breast cancer screening: update 2003. CA-A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. May/June 2003.
Breast awareness and self-exam. American Cancer Society website. Available at: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/breastcancer/moreinformation/breastcancerearlydetection/breast-cancer-early-detection-acs-recs-bse. Updated January 28, 2014. Accessed March 11, 2014.
Breast cancer screening concepts. National Cancer Institute website. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/screening/breast/healthprofessional/page4. Updated March 7, 2014. Accessed March 11, 2014.
- Reviewer: Michael Woods, MD
- Review Date: 03/2014 -
- Update Date: 03/11/2014 -
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This article is about general ligases. For DNA specific ligases, see DNA ligase.
In biochemistry, ligase (from the Latin verb ligāre — "to bind" or "to glue together") is an enzyme that can catalyze the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond, usually with accompanying hydrolysis of a small chemical group dependent to one of the larger molecules or the enzyme catalyzing the linking together of two compounds, e.g., enzymes that catalyze joining of C-O, C-S, C-N, etc. In general, a ligase catalyzes the following reaction:
Ab + C → A–C + b
Ab + cD → A–D + b + c + d + e + f
where the lowercase letters signify the small, dependent groups. Ligase can join two complementary fragments of nucleic acid and repair single stranded breaks that arise in double stranded DNA during replication.
The common names of ligase enzymes often include the word "ligase", such as DNA ligase, an enzyme commonly used in molecular biology laboratories to join together DNA fragments. Other common names for ligases include synthetases, because they are used to synthesize new molecules.
Note that, originally, biochemical nomenclature distinguished synthetases and synthases. Under the original definition, synthases do not use energy from nucleoside triphosphates (such as ATP, GTP, CTP, TTP, and UTP), whereas synthetases do use nucleoside triphosphates. It is also said that a synthase is a lyase (a lyase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breaking of various chemical bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation, often forming a new double bond or a new ring structure) and does not require any energy, whereas a synthetase is a ligase (a ligase is an enzyme that binds two chemicals or compounds) and thus requires energy. However, the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN) dictates that "synthase" can be used with any enzyme that catalyses synthesis (whether or not it uses nucleoside triphosphates), whereas "synthetase" is to be used synonymously.
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|A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®|
On this page:
Reviewed January 2014
What is the official name of the SLC19A3 gene?
The official name of this gene is “solute carrier family 19 (thiamine transporter), member 3.”
SLC19A3 is the gene's official symbol. The SLC19A3 gene is also known by other names, listed below.
Read more about gene names and symbols on the About page.
What is the normal function of the SLC19A3 gene?
The SLC19A3 gene provides instructions for making a protein called a thiamine transporter, which moves a vitamin called thiamine into cells. Thiamine, also known as vitamin B1, is obtained from the diet. It is involved in many cellular processes, and is necessary for proper functioning of the nervous system. Molecules made from thiamine are important in the breakdown of sugars and protein building blocks (amino acids). Thiamine is also involved in the production of certain chemicals that relay signals in the nervous system (neurotransmitters).
Does the SLC19A3 gene share characteristics with other genes?
The SLC19A3 gene belongs to a family of genes called SLC (solute carriers).
A gene family is a group of genes that share important characteristics. Classifying individual genes into families helps researchers describe how genes are related to each other. For more information, see What are gene families? in the Handbook.
How are changes in the SLC19A3 gene related to health conditions?
Where is the SLC19A3 gene located?
Cytogenetic Location: 2q37
Molecular Location on chromosome 2: base pairs 227,685,209 to 227,718,028
The SLC19A3 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 2 at position 37.
More precisely, the SLC19A3 gene is located from base pair 227,685,209 to base pair 227,718,028 on chromosome 2.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? in the Handbook.
Where can I find additional information about SLC19A3?
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about SLC19A3 helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
What other names do people use for the SLC19A3 gene or gene products?
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? in the Handbook.
Where can I find general information about genes?
The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language.
These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful.
What glossary definitions help with understanding SLC19A3?
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary.
See also Understanding Medical Terminology.
References (8 links)
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.
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Reviewed October 2010
What is the official name of the RPGR gene?
The official name of this gene is “retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator.”
RPGR is the gene's official symbol. The RPGR gene is also known by other names, listed below.
What is the normal function of the RPGR gene?
The RPGR gene provides instructions for making a protein that is essential for normal vision. Although the protein's function is not well understood, studies suggest that it plays an important role in cell structures called cilia. Cilia are microscopic, finger-like projections that stick out from the surface of many types of cells. They are involved in cell movement and many different chemical signaling pathways. Cilia are also necessary for the perception of sensory input, including hearing, smell, and vision.
Several different versions (isoforms) of the RPGR protein are produced from the RPGR gene. One version contains a segment known as the ORF15 exon. This version of the RPGR protein is active (expressed) predominantly in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. Specifically, the ORF15-containing isoform is found in the retina's specialized light receptor cells (photoreceptors). Researchers suspect that this isoform may help maintain photoreceptors by regulating the function of cilia. Other isoforms of the RPGR protein are expressed in other parts of the body, where they are probably also involved in cilia function.
How are changes in the RPGR gene related to health conditions?
- retinitis pigmentosa - caused by mutations in the RPGR gene
More than 300 mutations in the RPGR gene have been found to cause the X-linked form of retinitis pigmentosa. This condition primarily affects males, causing night blindness in early childhood followed by progressive daytime vision loss. RPGR gene mutations account for about 70 percent of all cases of X-linked retinitis pigmentosa.
Most of the mutations responsible for X-linked retinitis pigmentosa occur in the ORF15 exon of the RPGR protein. These mutations usually result in an abnormally short, malfunctioning protein. Changes in the structure of the RPGR protein likely disrupt the normal function of cilia in photoreceptor cells. However, it is unclear how these changes lead to the gradual loss of photoreceptors and resulting vision problems that are characteristic of retinitis pigmentosa.
- other disorders - caused by mutations in the RPGR gene
Although most RPGR gene mutations cause X-linked retinitis pigmentosa, a few mutations in the ORF15 exon have been found in people with other retinal disorders. These include cone-rod dystrophy, cone dystrophy, and atrophic macular degeneration. These retinal disorders are characterized by progressive vision abnormalities, although their signs and symptoms are distinct from retinitis pigmentosa.
Several additional RPGR gene mutations have been reported in people with a combination of retinitis pigmentosa and signs and symptoms affecting other parts of the body. In addition to progressive vision loss, affected individuals have had chronic respiratory and sinus infections, recurrent ear infections (otitis media), and hearing loss.
It is unclear why mutations in the RPGR gene can cause a variety of disorders. Studies suggest that certain mutations may disrupt the function of cilia in multiple tissues, including the inner ear and respiratory tract. Malfunctioning cilia in these tissues may underlie the hearing loss and respiratory abnormalities seen in some affected individuals. However, researchers are still working to determine how RPGR gene mutations cause specific abnormalities involving the retina and other parts of the body.
Where is the RPGR gene located?
Cytogenetic Location: Xp21.1
Molecular Location on the X chromosome: base pairs 38,269,169 to 38,327,563
The RPGR gene is located on the short (p) arm of the X chromosome at position 21.1.
More precisely, the RPGR gene is located from base pair 38,269,169 to base pair 38,327,563 on the X chromosome.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/howgeneswork/genelocation) in the Handbook.
Where can I find additional information about RPGR?
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about RPGR helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
- PubMed - Recent literature (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%28%28RPGR%5BTIAB%5D%29%20OR%20%28retinitis%20pigmentosa%20GTPase%20regulator%5BTIAB%5D%29%29%20AND%20%28%28Genes%5BMH%5D%29%20OR%20%28Genetic%20Phenomena%5BMH%5D%29%29%20AND%20english%5Bla%5D%20AND%20human%5Bmh%5D%20AND%20%22last%201800%20days%22%5Bdp%5D)
OMIM - Genetic disorder catalog
- CONE-ROD DYSTROPHY, X-LINKED, 1 (http://omim.org/entry/304020)
- RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA, X-LINKED, AND SINORESPIRATORY INFECTIONS, WITH OR WITHOUT DEAFNESS (http://omim.org/entry/300455)
- RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA GTPase REGULATOR (http://omim.org/entry/312610)
Research Resources - Tools for researchers
- HGNC Gene Symbol Report (http://www.genenames.org/cgi-bin/gene_symbol_report?q=data/hgnc_data.php&hgnc_id=10295)
- NCBI Gene (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/6103)
- RetNet: Summaries of Genes and Loci Causing Retinal Diseases (https://sph.uth.edu/retnet/sum-dis.htm)
- RPGR Gene Mutation Database (http://rpgr.hgu.mrc.ac.uk/)
What other names do people use for the RPGR gene or gene products?
- retinitis pigmentosa 3 GTPase regulator
- retinitis pigmentosa 15
- X-linked retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/naming) in the Handbook.
What glossary definitions help with understanding RPGR?
otitis media ;
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference
- Ayyagari R, Demirci FY, Liu J, Bingham EL, Stringham H, Kakuk LE, Boehnke M, Gorin MB, Richards JE, Sieving PA. X-linked recessive atrophic macular degeneration from RPGR mutation. Genomics. 2002 Aug;80(2):166-71. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12160730?dopt=Abstract)
- Demirci FY, Rigatti BW, Wen G, Radak AL, Mah TS, Baic CL, Traboulsi EI, Alitalo T, Ramser J, Gorin MB. X-linked cone-rod dystrophy (locus COD1): identification of mutations in RPGR exon ORF15. Am J Hum Genet. 2002 Apr;70(4):1049-53. Epub 2002 Feb 20. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11857109?dopt=Abstract)
- Ebenezer ND, Michaelides M, Jenkins SA, Audo I, Webster AR, Cheetham ME, Stockman A, Maher ER, Ainsworth JR, Yates JR, Bradshaw K, Holder GE, Moore AT, Hardcastle AJ. Identification of novel RPGR ORF15 mutations in X-linked progressive cone-rod dystrophy (XLCORD) families. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005 Jun;46(6):1891-8. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15914600?dopt=Abstract)
- Iannaccone A, Breuer DK, Wang XF, Kuo SF, Normando EM, Filippova E, Baldi A, Hiriyanna S, MacDonald CB, Baldi F, Cosgrove D, Morton CC, Swaroop A, Jablonski MM. Clinical and immunohistochemical evidence for an X linked retinitis pigmentosa syndrome with recurrent infections and hearing loss in association with an RPGR mutation. J Med Genet. 2003 Nov;40(11):e118. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14627685?dopt=Abstract)
- Moore A, Escudier E, Roger G, Tamalet A, Pelosse B, Marlin S, Clément A, Geremek M, Delaisi B, Bridoux AM, Coste A, Witt M, Duriez B, Amselem S. RPGR is mutated in patients with a complex X linked phenotype combining primary ciliary dyskinesia and retinitis pigmentosa. J Med Genet. 2006 Apr;43(4):326-33. Epub 2005 Jul 31. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16055928?dopt=Abstract)
- Murga-Zamalloa C, Swaroop A, Khanna H. Multiprotein complexes of Retinitis Pigmentosa GTPase regulator (RPGR), a ciliary protein mutated in X-linked Retinitis Pigmentosa (XLRP). Adv Exp Med Biol. 2010;664:105-14. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1399-9_13. Review. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20238008?dopt=Abstract)
- NCBI Gene (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/6103)
- Pelletier V, Jambou M, Delphin N, Zinovieva E, Stum M, Gigarel N, Dollfus H, Hamel C, Toutain A, Dufier JL, Roche O, Munnich A, Bonnefont JP, Kaplan J, Rozet JM. Comprehensive survey of mutations in RP2 and RPGR in patients affected with distinct retinal dystrophies: genotype-phenotype correlations and impact on genetic counseling. Hum Mutat. 2007 Jan;28(1):81-91. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16969763?dopt=Abstract)
- Shu X, Black GC, Rice JM, Hart-Holden N, Jones A, O'Grady A, Ramsden S, Wright AF. RPGR mutation analysis and disease: an update. Hum Mutat. 2007 Apr;28(4):322-8. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17195164?dopt=Abstract)
- Vervoort R, Lennon A, Bird AC, Tulloch B, Axton R, Miano MG, Meindl A, Meitinger T, Ciccodicola A, Wright AF. Mutational hot spot within a new RPGR exon in X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. Nat Genet. 2000 Aug;25(4):462-6. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10932196?dopt=Abstract)
- Wright AF, Shu X. Focus on Molecules: RPGR. Exp Eye Res. 2007 Jul;85(1):1-2. Epub 2006 Jun 12. Review. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16769054?dopt=Abstract)
- Yang Z, Peachey NS, Moshfeghi DM, Thirumalaichary S, Chorich L, Shugart YY, Fan K, Zhang K. Mutations in the RPGR gene cause X-linked cone dystrophy. Hum Mol Genet. 2002 Mar 1;11(5):605-11. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11875055?dopt=Abstract)
- Zito I, Downes SM, Patel RJ, Cheetham ME, Ebenezer ND, Jenkins SA, Bhattacharya SS, Webster AR, Holder GE, Bird AC, Bamiou DE, Hardcastle AJ. RPGR mutation associated with retinitis pigmentosa, impaired hearing, and sinorespiratory infections. J Med Genet. 2003 Aug;40(8):609-15. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12920075?dopt=Abstract)
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for
professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about
a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified
See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/findingprofessional) in the Handbook.
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MIT makes Hornet multicore simulator power aware
March 12, 2012 // Peter Clarke
Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have developed a software simulator, called Hornet, that they claim models the cycle-accurate performance of multicore chips and scales up to 1,000 of cores.
The research group reported on the Hornet simulator at the International Symposium on Networks-on-Chip in 2011 and won a best-paper prize, MIT said. The team presents an enhanced version of the simulator in the forthcoming issue of IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems that factors in power consumption as well as patterns of communications between cores, the processing times of individual tasks, and memory-access patterns.
To maintain accuracy of simulation and achieve reasonable run times researchers typically use models of processor cores implemented on programmable chips. To finish in a reasonable time software-only simulations have to sacrifice accuracy and precision.
Hornet sits between the two approaches, according to Myong Hyon Cho, a PhD student in MIT's department of electrical engineering and computer science (EECS) and one of Hornet's developers. It is intended to complement the other two approaches.
Although Hornet is slower than some predecessors it can provide cycle-accurate simulation of chips with 1,000 cores. Cycle accuracy is important to catch race and deadlock conditions. Hornet has already proved itself in the simulation of an architecture in which tasks are handed out to cores holding relevant data – rather than moving data to cores running particular tasks. Hornet found a deadlock condition. The researchers also proposed a way to avoid it — and demonstrated that their proposal worked with another Hornet simulation.
Hardware-based simulators cannot be reprogrammed so easily. Hornet could have advantages in situations where "you want to test out several ideas quickly, with good accuracy," according to Edward Suh, an assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering at Cornell University, whose group used an early version of Hornet.
However, because Hornet is slower than either hardware-accelerated simulation or less-accurate software simulation it does tend to be used to simulate small parts of an application.
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I’m sure most everyone has heard the term “cloud computing” at least once. What exactly is “the cloud” and cloud computing? It actually isn’t as magical — or new — as it may sound.
The cloud has been around for a very long time. In fact, it has been around since the dawn of the internet. Yes, you may not realize it but every time you visit or connect with a website, you are participating in cloud computing. You see, in the most basic form, cloud computing simply refers to computers — typically servers — that do most of the data processing and storage for you; you simply need a conduit — your smartphone, tablet, or computer — to connect to the cloud. For example, technically speaking, dotTech is stored “in the cloud” and every time you visit you are utilizing cloud computing. While cloud computing may be wrapped in a nice bow and tie nowadays, it is nothing new.
Amazon Web Services is one of the most popular cloud computing providers, thanks to the cost saving and quick expansion capabilities offered by Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud. As ArsTechnica puts it, “it’s difficult to throw a rock without hitting a large company with a public Web offering that uses it [Amazon Web Services]”. Earlier today, Amazon Web Services went down due to a failure of Amazon Elastic Block Store, taking many websites with it — Redditt, Imgur, GameFAQs, GitHub, FourSquare, and more. While Amazon has seemed to have solved the issue now, the failure of Amazon — regarded as one of the most reliable cloud computing providers out there — posses an important question: can the cloud be trusted?
You see this isn’t Amazon’s first failure. For example, Amazon Web Services went down in April 2011, too. If Amazon’s cloud can go down, then other clouds can, too. With more and more services going from the traditional, offline model to an online, cloud computing model, it is critical now more than ever to ensure reliable cloud computing networks and servers. Sure the world didn’t end when Amazon Web Services went down but it is easy to imagine how it could have been worse. If the pro-online trend continues, we may eventually be storing everything on the cloud with little to no local storage what-so-ever. What happens then if the cloud goes down? No, I’m not talking about being unable to access your porn collection or being unable to play video games for a few hours. I’m talking about having to forgo critical services and records (e.g. medical records, if they are ever moved to the cloud) for a not insignificant period of time. And this isn’t just for data storage — software are more and more relying on a cloud connection to operate than in the past when all processing would happen locally.
“Is the cloud reliable enough to be depended upon” really is a question that needs to be pondered on, not just by the tech industry but policy makers and the general public, too. If we, as a society at the domestic and international levels, insist on moving everything to the cloud, there need to be better redundancies in place to ensure access is never (never) lost — 99.999999999% up-time is no longer acceptable when everything is stored and processed in the cloud.
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What to do if you suspect your computer has a virus
Aug 13, 2012, 9:11 a.m.
If your computer is running slow or acting strangely, you may have scratched your head and wondered, "Does my computer have a virus?" Fortunately, it's a pretty easy process to check for a computer virus and you don't have to be a computer genius to do so. Here's how to find out if your computer's been infected.
- Update your virus protection software. Outdated software may not be able to effectively scan for viruses or take care of any that are found.
- Update your software's virus definitions. New viruses are released every day, and each one of them does something a little different than the next. It's not enough to have updated software if it's only able to recognize viruses that may have been released six months ago.
- Now that everything is updated, it's time to run a virus scan. Make sure you run the scan on all files and folders on your computer. This scan can take anywhere from several minutes to an hour to run. Be patient, and allow the program to finish before using your computer again.
- If your virus protection software didn't detect a virus and your computer continues to perform poorly, you might want to seek the help of a computer repair shop. They can perform more comprehensive diagnostics to tell you if it's a virus or a technical problem that'll require maintenance or parts to correct.
- If your virus protection software did detect a virus, follow the instructions in your software to safely eliminate or quarantine the virus. If you have a quarantined virus, you may require the help of a computer repair shop to get rid of it. However, quarantining the virus should protect your computer from the virus long enough for you to get help removing it permanently.
Sometimes, getting a computer virus can be worse than falling physically ill ourselves. At least with a physical virus, you can let it run its course -- not so for a computer virus, which can only do more damage the longer it's left untreated. Don't wait until you suspect your computer has a virus before taking action. The best defense against computer viruses is prevention. Don't open email attachments if you don't know who they're from, don't download from websites you don't know and trust, and keep your virus protection software updated and run scans regularly.
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Mosfet Output Stage Capacitance
I was leafing through one of my older notebooks today and
came across something you may like.
A number of you have asked about the trade-offs in
paralleling power Mosfets, particularly driving the Gate
capacitances. Practically speaking, we are talking the
Gate-to-Source and Gate-to-Drain capacitances.
As we parallel devices, we linearly increase the transcon-
ductance, Cgs and Cgd of the parts. Neglecting Cds, the
amount of current it takes to drive the Cgs is proportional
to Cgs and inversely proportional to the transconductance.
There is a considerable cancellation which helps out when
The Cds does not go away and remains proportional.
When you look at the spec sheets on these devices, you will
see typical figures quoted, but at Vgs of 0 volts, which is
not typical of the conditions we will see in a linear amplifier.
For the IRFP240 and the IRFP9240 we see a Ciss (total input
capacitance) of 1300 pF and 1400 pf respectively. For the
reverse transfer capacitance Crss the figures are 93 pF and
140 pf respectively.
In linear operation, though, the numbers are different.
Let's take an example of a complementary follower output
stage using 4 parallel pairs of IRFP240 and IRFP9240 with
.47 ohm Source resistors and biased at 100 mA each (400 ma
By carefully measuring the Gate current of each device at
8 volts rms into 8 ohms (1 amp rms) at 1 KHz, 10 KHz, and
100 KHz we can measure the total input capacitance. By
performing the same experiment without a load, we can separate
out the Cgd.
Under these conditions the total input capacitance of the
IRFP240 is about 75 pF and the IRFP9240 is about 60 pF.
Without a load, these figures are 45 pF and 35 pF respectively.
So if you're driving an 8 ohm load with 4 pairs of these
devices, you can estimate your apparent output stage
capacitance at (75+60)*4 pF = 540 pF. Keep in mind that you
won't get 135 pF if you try to drive the 8 ohms with just a
single pair, as the Cgs will will have to be charged to a higher
voltage to make up for the loss of transconductance.
slidin' in Santa Clothes , too early ?
Yes, thank you :D
Thank you for sharing.
May I ask one question.
Suppose I use ONE single pair, but increase the bias to 400mA per FET, and at the same time reduce the source degeneration resistor by a factor of 4. Assuming of course that dissipation is not an issue, for the sake of the discussion.
At such "low" bias currents, one can count on that transconductance is roughly proportional to bias (quadratic region), i.e. 4x per FET compared to 100mA. In which case I would expect the voltage required to drive the gate to be comparable to 4 pair @ 100mA. Would I then not get close to 135p, give or take 20% ?
I've been working (playing) with the F4 in the sim, so I thought I would see what Pspice say's about these examples. :smash: :smash: :smash:
All numbers are Pk, not rms, not Pk-Pk :D
In the tradition of First Watt, I set-up a 4V sinewave Output, into 8 ohms (1 Watt Pk), with an F4 looking circuit that contains 4 pairs of IRFP240 and 4 of IRFP9240. I Also did the same for a circuit with only one pair of outputs. The 4 pair of outputs were biased at 100mA Iq ea. with .47 ohm Rs and the single pair circuit biased at 400mA with .1175 ohm Rs...
Is this the circuit in question Patrick?
The 4 pair circuit measures .083% THD @1kHz. The Gate current for each N FET measures about 6uA (Pk) and the Ps about 5.5uA.
The single pair circuit measures .028% THD @1kHz (mostly 2nd harmonic). It's gate current is about 6.5uA into the N gate and 6.3 into the p channel device.
Hmmmm :scratch: :scratch: :scratch:
I don't see a big difference there (as patrick said "give or take 20% ?") :bigeyes:
I suppose a higher frequency may have been a more appropriate parameter to use here???
But, from my previous experiance, the THD numbers are very proportional to the low bias currents. Notice the single pair circuit has less THD??? It has 4X the bias current/FET.
Being not unlike other DIYer's, I also did the same sims with a 20V Pk output. Note, that we are now entering Class AB territory.
The 4 pair circuit measures .092% THD @1kHz. The Gate current for each N FET measures about 30uA (Pk) and the Ps about 28uA.
The single pair circuit measures .165% THD @1kHz (including 2nd, 3rd, a little 4th, 5th and 7th). :bawling: It's gate current is about 32uA into the N and P gates.
the irf hexfet shows rather low combined input capacitance
according to Nelson first post investigation
in a real circuit
the resulting input capacitance is something like 10% of Ciss data
is this a value we can use as some 'rule of the thumb'
for most HEXFET / Vertical MOSFET
is this a value we can use as some 'rule of the thumb'
for most LATERAL MOSFET, too
Reasoning that ... even lateral mosfet with their lower Ciss data
should maybe show some 10% ONLY in a real circuit.
I am most interesting of True Class A complementary operation.
As I now post again, in Pass Labs
Naturaly, I should have made some irresponsible discloser regarding my post above, claiming all statements were made with honest intent and all, but, I am in no way responsible for errors or actuall circuit behaviour. Rid me of the anti simers and their complaints. In other words, your actual mileage may vary :D
I did however notice a 2-3% gain loss in the single pair circuit. And, I looked at the model parameters for the 240 and 9240 C values: the N has a Cgs off 1457pf and Cgd of 316 and the P had Cgs of 963pf and Cgd 139...
I might guess the single pair circuit is running out of poop due to the loss of Transconductance at almost no Vds (3.5V in my circuit at 20V out). Or it's approching clipping before the lower source resistance of the 4 pair example.
Well Lineup, I beleive when you try to drive a follower, the Vgs is actually almost no difference with signal. Because the Source follows, the Gate, there is very little difference Gate to Source, hence, very little capacitance is actually being driven . This is somewhat dependant on gain :xeye: There will be a larger diffrence in Gate to Source voltage with lower gain devices :D
The Gate to Drain voltage though, does see a large change with signal and you are driving it like a capacitor plus some other effects ;)
So, without going into deep math, might N.P. straiten me out :xeye: Or maybe there is a Thumbnail calculation ???
If the total input capacitance looks like 75 pf and the Cgd comes
in at 45 pF, then the apparent Cgs thumbnails at 30 pF
Into 4 ohms, it will thumbnail at 60 pF.
Into 0 ohms I believe it will come in around 500-600 pF, on the
order of half its rated Cgs.
> Would I then not get close to 135p with a single pair, give or take 20% ?
Perhaps you would care to comment on my reasoning in Post #4 and point out where my thinking might be wrong ?
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Skip to Main Content
Remote diagnostics of patient's vital information and initiation of necessary actions have resulted in the development of wireless body area network (WBAN). For almost zero maintenance of each sensor node within a WBAN, each node must work with a power consumption less than 100μW which can be achieved employing impulse radio architecture. In this work a low-power transmitter has been presented. The unit manifests a Data Generator Block, an Impulse Generator Block and a Buffer. The Data Generator Block converts any electrochemical sensor current in the range of 0.2μA to 2μA to digital data. The circuit can operate with a supply voltage of 1V and consume a power in the range of 0.427μW to 3.5μW. The Impulse Generator Block utilizes a RC network to generate impulses of approximately 110ns duration. Finally a Buffer circuit is used to drive a standard 50Ω load which could be an external antenna. The peak current consumption of the impulses is 2.81mA with peak output voltage of 140.2mV that makes it extremely suitable for short range wireless communication. The entire system has been designed and simulated using 0.35-μm standard CMOS process. The average power consumption of the system is only 68.30μW.
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Serial Peripheral Interface Bus
The Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus is a synchronous serial communication interface specification used for short distance communication, primarily in embedded systems. The interface was developed by Motorola and has become a de facto standard. Typical applications include sensors, Secure Digital cards, and liquid crystal displays.
SPI devices communicate in full duplex mode using a master-slave architecture with a single master. The master device originates the frame for reading and writing. Multiple slave devices are supported through selection with individual slave select (SS) lines.
Sometimes SPI is called a four-wire serial bus, contrasting with three-, two-, and one-wire serial buses. The SPI may be accurately described as a synchronous serial interface, but it is different from the Synchronous Serial Interface (SSI) protocol, which is also a four-wire synchronous serial communication protocol, but employs differential signaling and provides only a single simplex communication channel.
- 1 Interface
- 2 Operation
- 3 Pros and cons
- 4 Applications
- 5 Standards
- 6 Development tools
- 7 Related terms
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 External links
The SPI bus specifies four logic signals:
- SCLK : Serial Clock (output from master).
- MOSI : Master Output, Slave Input (output from master).
- MISO : Master Input, Slave Output (output from slave).
- SS : Slave Select (active low, output from master).
Alternative naming conventions are also widely used, and SPI port pin names for particular IC products may differ from those depicted in these illustrations:
- SCLK : SCK, CLK.
- MOSI : SIMO, SDO (for master devices), SDI(for slave devices), DO, DOUT, SI, MTSR.
- MISO : SOMI, SDO (for slave devices ), SDI(for master devices), DI, DIN, SO, MRST.
- SS : nCS, CS, CSB, CSN, nSS, STE, SYNC.
The MOSI/MISO convention requires that, on devices using the alternate names, SDI on the master be connected to SDO on the slave, and vice versa. Chip select polarity is rarely active high, although some notations (such as SS or CS instead of nSS or nCS) suggest otherwise. Slave select is used instead of an addressing concept.
The SPI bus can operate with a single master device and with one or more slave devices.
If a single slave device is used, the SS pin may be fixed to logic low if the slave permits it. Some slaves require a falling edge of the chip select signal to initiate an action, an example is the Maxim MAX1242 ADC, which starts conversion on a high→low transition. With multiple slave devices, an independent SS signal is required from the master for each slave device.
Most slave devices have tri-state outputs so their MISO signal becomes high impedance (logically disconnected) when the device is not selected. Devices without tri-state outputs cannot share SPI bus segments with other devices; only one such slave could talk to the master, and only its chip select (CS).
To begin communication, the bus master configures the clock, using a frequency supported by the slave device, typically up to a few MHz. The master then selects the slave device with a logic level 0 on the select line. If a waiting period is required, such as for analog-to-digital conversion, the master must wait for at least that period of time before issuing clock cycles.
During each SPI clock cycle, a full duplex data transmission occurs. The master sends a bit on the MOSI line and the slave reads it, while the slave sends a bit on the MISO line and the master reads it. This sequence is maintained even when only one-directional data transfer is intended.
Transmissions normally involve two shift registers of some given word size, such as eight bits, one in the master and one in the slave; they are connected in a virtual ring topology. Data is usually shifted out with the most-significant bit first, while shifting a new least-significant bit into the same register. After that register has been shifted out, the master and slave have exchanged register values. If more data needs to be exchanged, the shift registers are reloaded and the process repeats. Transmission may continue for any number of clock cycles. When complete, the master stops toggling the clock signal, and typically deselects the slave.
Transmissions often consist of 8-bit words. However, other word sizes are also common, for example, 16-bit words for touchscreen controllers or audio codecs, such as the TSC2101 by Texas Instruments, or 12-bit words for many digital-to-analog or analog-to-digital converters.
Every slave on the bus that has not been activated using its chip select line must disregard the input clock and MOSI signals, and must not drive MISO. The master must select only one slave at a time.
Clock polarity and phase
In addition to setting the clock frequency, the master must also configure the clock polarity and phase with respect to the data. Freescale's SPI Block Guide names these two options as CPOL and CPHA respectively, and most vendors have adopted that convention.
The timing diagram is shown to the right. The timing is further described below and applies to both the master and the slave device.
- At CPOL=0 the base value of the clock is zero
- For CPHA=0, data are captured on the clock's rising edge (low→high transition) and data is propagated on a falling edge (high→low clock transition).
- For CPHA=1, data are captured on the clock's falling edge and data is propagated on a rising edge.
- At CPOL=1 the base value of the clock is one (inversion of CPOL=0)
- For CPHA=0, data are captured on clock's falling edge and data is propagated on a rising edge.
- For CPHA=1, data are captured on clock's rising edge and data is propagated on a falling edge.
That is, CPHA=0 means sample on the leading (first) clock edge, while CPHA=1 means sample on the trailing (second) clock edge, regardless of whether that clock edge is rising or falling. Note that with CPHA=0, the data must be stable for a half cycle before the first clock cycle.
The MOSI and MISO signals are usually stable (at their reception points) for the half cycle until the next clock transition. SPI master and slave devices may well sample data at different points in that half cycle.
This adds more flexibility to the communication channel between the master and slave.
The combinations of polarity and phases are often referred to as modes which are commonly numbered according to the following convention, with CPOL as the high order bit and CPHA as the low order bit:
For "Microchip PIC" / "ARM-based" microcontrollers:
|SPI Mode||Clock Polarity
For PIC32MX : SPI mode configure CKP,CKE and SMP bits.Set SMP bit,and CKP,CKE two bits configured as above table.
For other microcontrollers:
Another commonly used notation represents the mode as a (CPOL, CPHA) tuple; e.g., the value '(0, 1)' would indicate CPOL=0 and CPHA=1.
Independent slave configuration
In the independent slave configuration, there is an independent chip select line for each slave. This is the way SPI is normally used. Since the MISO pins of the slaves are connected together, they are required to be tri-state pins (high, low or high-impedance).
Daisy chain configuration
Some products that implement SPI may be connected in a daisy chain configuration, the first slave output being connected to the second slave input, etc. The SPI port of each slave is designed to send out during the second group of clock pulses an exact copy of the data it received during the first group of clock pulses. The whole chain acts as a communication shift register; daisy chaining is often done with shift registers to provide a bank of inputs or outputs through SPI. Such a feature only requires a single SS line from the master, rather than a separate SS line for each slave.
Some slave devices are designed to ignore any SPI communications in which the number of clock pulses is greater than specified. Others do not care, ignoring extra inputs and continuing to shift the same output bit. It is common for different devices to use SPI communications with different lengths, as, for example, when SPI is used to access the scan chain of a digital IC by issuing a command word of one size (perhaps 32 bits) and then getting a response of a different size (perhaps 153 bits, one for each pin in that scan chain).
SPI devices sometimes use another signal line to send an interrupt signal to a host CPU. Examples include pen-down interrupts from touchscreen sensors, thermal limit alerts from temperature sensors, alarms issued by real time clock chips, SDIO, and headset jack insertions from the sound codec in a cell phone. Interrupts are not covered by the SPI standard; their usage is neither forbidden nor specified by the standard.
Pros and cons
- Full duplex communication in the default version of this protocol.
- Push-pull drivers (as opposed to open drain) provide good signal integrity and high speed
- Higher throughput than I²C or SMBus
- Complete protocol flexibility for the bits transferred
- Not limited to 8-bit words
- Arbitrary choice of message size, content, and purpose
- Extremely simple hardware interfacing
- Typically lower power requirements than I²C or SMBus due to less circuitry (including pull up resistors)
- No arbitration or associated failure modes
- Slaves use the master's clock, and do not need precision oscillators
- Slaves do not need a unique address — unlike I²C or GPIB or SCSI
- Transceivers are not needed
- Uses only four pins on IC packages, and wires in board layouts or connectors, much fewer than parallel interfaces
- At most one unique bus signal per device (chip select); all others are shared
- Signals are unidirectional allowing for easy Galvanic isolation
- Not limited to any maximum clock speed, enabling potentially high throughput
- Requires more pins on IC packages than I²C, even in the three-wire variant
- No in-band addressing; out-of-band chip select signals are required on shared buses
- No hardware flow control by the slave (but the master can delay the next clock edge to slow the transfer rate)
- No hardware slave acknowledgment (the master could be transmitting to nowhere and not know it)
- Supports only one master device
- No error-checking protocol is defined
- Without a formal standard, validating conformance is not possible
- Only handles short distances compared to RS-232, RS-485, or CAN-bus
- Many existing variations, making it difficult to find development tools like host adapters that support those variations
- SPI does not support hot plugging (dynamically adding nodes).
- Interrupts must either be implemented with out-of-band signals or be faked by using periodic polling similarly to USB 1.1 and 2.0
- Some variants like Multi I/O SPI and three-wire serial buses defined below are half-duplex.
The board real estate savings compared to a parallel I/O bus are significant, and have earned SPI a solid role in embedded systems. That is true for most system-on-a-chip processors, both with higher end 32-bit processors such as those using ARM, MIPS, or PowerPC and with other microcontrollers such as the AVR, PIC, and MSP430. These chips usually include SPI controllers capable of running in either master or slave mode. In-system programmable AVR controllers (including blank ones) can be programmed using an SPI interface.
Chip or FPGA based designs sometimes use SPI to communicate between internal components; on-chip real estate can be as costly as its on-board cousin.
The full-duplex capability makes SPI very simple and efficient for single master/single slave applications. Some devices use the full-duplex mode to implement an efficient, swift data stream for applications such as digital audio, digital signal processing, or telecommunications channels, but most off-the-shelf chips stick to half-duplex request/response protocols.
SPI is used to talk to a variety of peripherals, such as
- Sensors: temperature, pressure, ADC, touchscreens, video game controllers
- Control devices: audio codecs, digital potentiometers, DAC
- Camera lenses: Canon EF lens mount
- Communications: Ethernet, USB, USART, CAN, IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.11, handheld video games
- Memory: flash and EEPROM
- Real-time clocks
- LCD, sometimes even for managing image data
- Any MMC or SD card (including SDIO variant)
For high performance systems, FPGAs sometimes use SPI to interface as a slave to a host, as a master to sensors, or for flash memory used to bootstrap if they are SRAM-based.
JTAG is essentially an application stack for a three-wire SPI flavor, using different signal names: TCK not SCK, TDI not MOSI, TDO not MISO. It defines a state machine (driven by a TMS signal instead of a chip select line), protocol messages, a core command set, the ability to daisy-chain devices in a "scan chain", and how vendors define new commands. The devices in a scan chain are initially treated as a single device, and transitions on TMS update their state machines; once the individual devices are identified, commands may be issued that affect only one device in that scan chain. Different vendors use different JTAG connectors. Bit strings used in JTAG are often long and not multiples of 8 bit words; for example, a boundary scan reports signal state on each of several hundred pins.
The SPI bus is a de facto standard. However, the lack of a formal standard is reflected in a wide variety of protocol options. Different word sizes are common. Every device defines its own protocol, including whether or not it supports commands at all. Some devices are transmit-only; others are receive-only. Chip selects are sometimes active-high rather than active-low. Some protocols send the least significant bit first.
Some devices even have minor variances from the CPOL/CPHA modes described above. Sending data from slave to master may use the opposite clock edge as master to slave. Devices often require extra clock idle time before the first clock or after the last one, or between a command and its response. Some devices have two clocks, one to read data, and another to transmit it into the device. Many of the read clocks run from the chip select line.
Some devices require an additional flow control signal from slave to master, indicating when data are ready. This leads to a 5-wire protocol instead of the usual 4. Such a ready or enable signal is often active-low, and needs to be enabled at key points such as after commands or between words. Without such a signal, data transfer rates may need to be slowed down significantly, or protocols may need to have dummy bytes inserted, to accommodate the worst case for the slave response time. Examples include initiating an ADC conversion, addressing the right page of flash memory, and processing enough of a command that device firmware can load the first word of the response. (Many SPI masters do not support that signal directly, and instead rely on fixed delays.)
Many SPI chips only support messages that are multiples of 8 bits. Such chips can not interoperate with the JTAG or SGPIO protocols, or any other protocol that requires messages that are not multiples of 8 bits.
There are also hardware-level differences. Some chips combine MOSI and MISO into a single data line (SI/SO); this is sometimes called 'three-wire' signaling (in contrast to normal 'four-wire' SPI). Another variation of SPI removes the chip select line, managing protocol state machine entry/exit using other methods. Anyone needing an external connector for SPI defines their own: UEXT, JTAG connector, Secure Digital card socket, etc. Signal levels depend entirely on the chips involved.
When developing or troubleshooting systems using SPI, visibility at the level of hardware signals can be important.
There are a number of USB hardware solutions to provide computers, running Linux, Mac, or Windows, SPI master and/or slave capabilities. Many of them also provide scripting and/or programming capabilities (Visual Basic, C/C++, VHDL etc.).
An SPI host adapter lets the user play the role of a master on an SPI bus directly from PC. They are used for embedded systems, chips (FPGA/ASIC/SoC) and peripheral testing, programming and debugging.
The key parameters of SPI adapters are: the maximum supported frequency for the serial interface, command-to-command latency and the maximum length for SPI commands. It is possible to find SPI adapters on the market today that support up to 100 MHz serial interfaces, with virtually unlimited access length.
SPI protocol being a de facto standard, some SPI host adapters also have the ability of supporting other protocols beyond the traditional 4-wires SPI (for example, support of quad-SPI protocol or other custom serial protocol that derive from SPI).
Examples of SPI adapters (manufacturers in alphabetical order):
|Manufacturer||SPI host adapter||Host bus||Bus protocol support||Max frequency|
|Byte Paradigm||SPI Storm||USB||SPI, dual/quad, custom||100 MHz|
|Corelis||BusPro-S||USB||SPI, dual/quad||60 MHz|
|Microchip||MCP2210 Kit||USB||SPI||12 MHz|
|National Instruments||USB-8542||USB||I²C, SPI||50 MHz|
|Total Phase||Cheetah||USB||SPI||40 MHz|
SPI protocol analyzers are tools which sample an SPI bus and decode the electrical signals to provide a higher-level view of the data being transmitted on a specific bus.
Examples of SPI protocol analysers (manufacturers in alphabetical order):
|Manufacturer||SPI host adapter||Host bus||Bus protocol support||Max sample rate||Extras|
|Byte Paradigm||Logic Pro 16||USB||SPI, I2C, serial, custom||100 Mega-samples/second||Analogue (50 Mega-samples/second)|
Every major oscilloscope vendor offers oscilloscope-based triggering and protocol decoding for SPI. Most support 2-, 3-, and 4-wire SPI. The triggering and decoding capability is typically offered as an optional extra. SPI signals can be accessed via analog oscilloscope channels or with digital MSO channels.
When developing and/or troubleshooting the SPI bus, examination of hardware signals can be very important. Logic analyzers are tools which collect, analyze, decode, and store signals so people can view the high-speed waveforms at their leisure. Logic analyzers display time-stamps of each signal level change, which can help find protocol problems. Most logic analyzers have the capability to decode bus signals into high-level protocol data and show ASCII data.
Intelligent SPI controllers
A queued serial peripheral interface (QSPI) is a type of SPI controller that uses a data queue to transfer data across the SPI bus. It has a wrap-around mode allowing continuous transfers to and from the queue with only intermittent attention from the CPU. Consequently, the peripherals appear to the CPU as memory-mapped parallel devices. This feature is useful in applications such as control of an A/D converter. Other programmable features in QSPI are chip selects and transfer length/delay.
SPI controllers from different vendors support different feature sets; such DMA queues are not uncommon, although they may be associated with separate DMA engines rather than the SPI controller itself, such as used by multichannel buffered serial port (MCBSP). Most SPI master controllers integrate support for up to four chip selects, although some require chip selects to be managed separately through GPIO lines.
Microwire, often spelled μWire, is essentially a predecessor of SPI and a trademark of National Semiconductor. It's a strict subset of SPI: half-duplex, and using SPI mode 0. Microwire chips tend to need slower clock rates than newer SPI versions; perhaps 2 MHz vs. 20 MHz. Some Microwire chips also support a three-wire mode, which fits neatly with the restriction to half-duplex.
Microwire/Plus is an enhancement of Microwire and features full-duplex communication and support for SPI modes 0 and 1. There was no specified improvement in serial clock speed.
Three-wire serial buses
As mentioned, one variant of SPI uses single bidirectional data line (slave out/slave in, called SISO) instead of two unidirectional ones (MOSI and MISO). This variant is restricted to a half duplex mode. It tends to be used for lower performance parts, such as small EEPROMs used only during system startup and certain sensors, and Microwire. Few SPI master controllers support this mode; although it can often be easily bit-banged in software.
Multi I/O SPI
As opposed to three-wire serial buses, multi I/O SPI uses multiple parallel data lines (e.g., IO0 to IO3) to increase throughput. Dual I/O SPI using two data lines has comparable throughput to fast single I/O (MISO/MOSI). Quad I/O SPI using four data lines has approximately double the throughput. Multi I/O SPI devices tend to be half duplex similar to three-wire devices to avoid adding too many pins. These serial memory devices combine the advantage of more speed with reduced pin count as compared to parallel memory.
mSPI (mini-SPI) is a modification initially developed by Dimitech for their programmable modules. Unlike the standard SPI, four signal lines are always required no matter of the number of slave devices. Its overall simplicity allows the use of standard SPI controllers with a very thin software layer.
All slave devices share the same SS (Slave Select; active low) line, along with the other three SPI signals: SCLK, MOSI and MISO. Additionally all slave devices normally have their MISO line disconnected from the bus in a high impedance state. As in the standard SPI, begin of transmission is marked by the activation of the SS line low and the end is marked by its return to high. mSPI requires the bus master to issue a "slave address" (typically 8 bits) as mandatory first word in every transmission. Since all slave devices share the same SS line, the address word will be received by all of them at the same time. From that point further, only the device with the specified address will connect its MISO line to the bus and start communicating, while all other slave devices will ignore any data and wait for a new start of transmission and address. mSPI solves some of the basic disadvantages of the standard SPI at the expense of a slight decrease in the overall communication speed due to the initial addressing.
Intel Enhanced Serial Peripheral Interface Bus
Intel is currently developing a successor to its Low Pin Count (LPC) bus that it calls the Enhanced Serial Peripheral Interface Bus, or eSPI for short. Intel aims to allow the reduction in the number of pins required on motherboards compared to systems using LPC, have more available throughput than LPC, reduce the working voltage to 1.8 volts to facilitate smaller chip manufacturing processes, allow eSPI peripherals to share SPI flash devices with the host (the LPC bus did not allow firmware hubs to be used by LPC peripherals), tunnel previous out-of-band pins through the eSPI bus, and allow system designers to trade off cost and performance.
The eSPI bus can either be shared with SPI devices to save pins or be separate from the SPI bus to allow more performance, especially when eSPI devices need to use SPI flash devices.
This proposed standard defines an Alert# signal that is used by an eSPI slave to request service from the master. In a performance-oriented design or a design with only one eSPI slave, each eSPI slave will have its Alert# pin connected to an Alert# pin on the eSPI master that is dedicated to each slave, allowing the eSPI master to grant low-latency service because the eSPI master will know which eSPI slave needs service and will not need to poll all of the slaves to determine which device needs service. In a budget design with more than one eSPI slave, all of the Alert# pins of the slaves are connected to one Alert# pin on the eSPI master in a wired-OR connection, which will require the master to poll all the slaves to determine which ones need service when the Alert# signal is pulled low by one or more peripherals that need service. Only after all of the devices are serviced will the Alert# signal be pulled high due to none of the eSPI slaves needing service and therefore pulling the Alert# signal low.
This proposed standard allows designers to use 1-bit, 2-bit, or 4-bit communications at speeds from 20 to 66 MHz to further allow designers to trade off performance and cost.
All communications that were out-of-band of the LPC bus like general-purpose input/output (GPIO) and System Management Bus (SMBus) are tunneled through the eSPI bus via virtual wire cycles and out-of-band message cycles respectively in order to remove those pins from motherboard designs using eSPI.
This proposed standard will support standard memory cycles with lengths of 1 byte to 4 kibibytes of data, short memory cycles with lengths of 1, 2, or 4 bytes that have much less overhead compared to standard memory cycles, and I/O cycles with lengths of 1, 2, or 4 bytes of data which are low overhead as well. This significantly reduces overhead compared to the LPC bus, whose throughput is nearly totally dominated by overhead. The standard memory cycle allows a length of anywhere from 1 byte to 4 kibibytes in order to allow its overhead to be amortized over a large transaction. eSPI slaves are allowed to initiate bus master versions of all of the memory cycles. Bus master I/O cycles, which were introduced by the LPC bus specification, and ISA-style DMA including the 32-bit variant introduced by the LPC bus specification, are not present in eSPI. Therefore, bus master memory cycles are the only allowed DMA in this standard.
eSPI slaves are allowed to use the eSPI master as a proxy to perform flash operations on a standard SPI flash memory slave on behalf of the requesting eSPI slave.
64-bit memory addressing is also added, but is only permitted when there is no equivalent 32-bit address.
- "What is Serial Synchronous Interface (SSI)?". Retrieved 2015-01-28.
- SPI Block Guide V03.06, Freescale Semiconductor
- Maxim-IC application note 3947: "Daisy-Chaining SPI Devices"
- AVR910 - In-system programming
- SPI Adapter with support of custom serial protocols, Byte Paradigm.
- Queued Serial Module Reference Manual, Freescale Semiconductor
- Such as with the MultiChannel Serial Port Interface, or McSPI, used in Texas Instruments OMAP chips.
- Such as the SPI controller on Atmel AT91 chips like the at91sam9G20, which is much simpler than TI's McSPI.
- MICROWIRE Serial Interface National Semiconductor Application Note AN-452
- MICROWIRE/PLUS Serial Interface for COP800 Family National Semiconductor Application Note AN-579
- Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Flash Memory Backgrounder, Spansion
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Serial Peripheral Interface.|
- Intel eSPI (Enhanced Serial Peripheral Interface)
- Introduction to SPI and I2C protocols
- Serial buses information page
- SPI Introduction
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Viewers: in countries Watching now:
In this series on productivity, author Jess Stratton takes you through the latest tools that will help you run your business and life more efficiently. Each installment covers a particular feature or technique in a different online tool, such as Google Apps, Skype, YouTube, Mint.com, Etsy, and more. Learn about topics ranging from recording and publishing video chats to managing your finances online.
Note: Monday Productivity Pointers is currently on a break, but stay tuned for new tutorials!
Welcome to Monday Productivity Pointers. My name is Jess Stratton and this week I'm talking about home WiFi. When things are slow with your home wireless connection, it's not necessarily just a matter of getting a new router, and sometimes you may get a new router and not notice any speed increase at all. There's a lot of puzzle pieces and a lot of hardware. That all combines to give you the speed you get when you use the Internet on your device. Today, I'm going to show you what all those puzzle pieces are. So that you can check them one by one and make sure you're squeezing every possible megabit per second of speed.
I'm going to start with the most general things and end up with the most specific. But the first thing I need to explain is how wireless speed is measured. It's measured by means of megabits per second. How many megabits per second of data can be transmitted over the connection? One megabit is one million bits. So a 54 megabit connection means that it can transfer approximately 54 million bits of data per second. Obviously, the higher the number, the faster the connection speed.
When we talk about speed, we also usually refer to it as bandwidth that is the amount of data that your allowed to transfer. These rates can also change over the course of your connection, so your max speed may also not be the speed you connect at, it could be slower. And that's okay. We're here today to identify the weakest link in your home wireless configuration, and to find the weakest link in the bunch, we first have to identify what the bunch is. So, here's the first puzzle piece. Your modem speed. Is your cable modem or BIOS word DSL. Outdated.
This can be combined with a router, or it can be a stand alone piece of hardware. Most likely, it came from your provider. So the first thing that you can do, is call your FiOS, DSL, or cable provider, and ask them if you're using the most current modem to get online. The next thing is your router speed. You could be using an older router. If you don't know the speed of your router, the easiest thing to do is to search the web for it on the model number, and find out. Let me show you. I did a quick Google search on the router that I use at home.
It's called the NetGear N600. So if I do a Google search, I can immediately see the first result is the actual model number of that router. Which is WNDR3700. And I can see right in the description, that the NetGear N600 router offers wireless speeds of up to 300 Mbps. Now in the next video, I'm going to show you how to log into your router and configure it for something called dual band mode for even more speed. And while you're there, if your network connection is slow you can also do something called a firmware update on your router.
The next thing to check is your wireless adapter speed. Your computer or laptop has a wireless adapter in it. It's a physical piece of hardware. Now, most likely, has the fastest speed that was available when the laptop or computer was built. Or, when you bought the adapter, if you have an external USB wireless adapter. Because, a lot of older computers didn't even come with wireless adapters. So, you may have had to go to the store, and bought an external wireless adapter. That you then plugged into the computer via a USB cable.
Now, that comes with a maximum speed, also. To find out the speed if you're on a Mac you can do a spotlight search and type, network utility. Let's do that now. I'm going to hit Cmd + space on the keyboard and type network utility. If I get into that Network Utility I'm going to click on the Info tab, and the first thing I need to do from the Drop Down is select the network interface that I'm looking for. Now in this case I'm not connected via WiFi, I'm connected by a hard Ethernet cable, so I'm going to select that. But you would see wiFi in here.
I'll find the right connection, and I'll know it's the right connection because it's one that has an IP address. And it's actually transmitting data over here on the right. I can see what my link speed is currently, but what I'm interested in, is the make and model of that physical piece of hardware, so that I can look it up online, and see what the maximum speed is. If you are using Windows, in the task bar on the bottom right of the desktop you can right-click that wireless icon which is the icon with the tiered bars on it, open the Networks and Sharing Center and click on your Wi-Fi connection.
You'll probably see a button there that says Properties and you can click on that to see that actual make and model and name of your wireless card. The next thing to search on, is your provider tiered download speed. Gone are the days of signing up for a high speed internet. Now internet speed is tiered, meaning you can pay more per month for faster download speeds. For example, you can get a 75 megabit per second download speed, which is great for families that have multiple computers and stream video a lot. So what you need to do now, is call your provider, after you ask them what type of cable box you're using, and see what download rate you're currently getting.
Sometimes you can increase it, and they're always having specials. So you can shop around and see what the price is. For a good rate for you. And even then though, after, you can go to a website, called speedtest.net to make sure that you're really getting that speed. You may not get that actual speed, but you want to make sure you're coming close. There's one more piece, and that's your router configuration. I'm going to go over this in the next video, but it does play a part here. You can have a router that's capable of a fast connection, but you might have it configured with an older networking standard.
You may have heard of something called an 802.11 protocol. This is a WiFi networking specification. It's a standard. We started out with 802.11a and b. Then we moved on to wireless adapters that were being manufactured to support much higher transmit data speeds which gave us something called, 802.11g. And finally, the much faster and still widely used 802.11n. Now I'm covering this here because these are numbers that you've probably seen a lot.
And maybe you didn't know what they were. So you have the ability to log into your router, and make sure you aren't slowing down your connection by having it set to an older protocol. Such as 802.11g. Every one of these pieces is important, and it's important to know the speed that each hardware item maxes out at. This is how you can tell what your weakest link is. So now that you know what all the puzzle piecces are, you can go through and identify where your bottleneck lies. I know a lot of people that have the latest and greatest tablets and computers.
Which would certainly come with fast Wi-fi adapter speeds, and they recently switched to Verizon FIOS to give them that screaming fast 75 megabit per second download speed. However, their router is still the old blue Linksys WRT54G model. Which was the old blue router with the two rabbit ears on it. This is a really old router from back when 54 megabits, per second was the fastest speed out there. The connection will never be able to transmit any data faster than that. So, in this case, spending more money for a faster Internet connection speed is a waste.
As the computer will never be able to download at that speed, due to the limitations of the router. I'm going to leave you with one final thought. For streaming, nothing will be more stable than a wired Ethernet connection. Many devices like Blu-ray players, TVs and XBox consoles also come with the ability to plug in a physical cable through Ethernet from your router. If you're worried about streaming quality, think about moving your home router into your living room, TV and console area, so that you can hardwire everything. In the next video, I'm going to show you how to create what's called a dual band wireless network.
So that you can potentially double your WiFi speed.
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As more telephones, laptops, and personal digital assistants become wireless, meshing the different antenna configurations becomes a problem for satellite and terrestrial communication. A new Meander Line Antenna (MLA) may provide a solution. "It's new because it combines previously separate antennas used for different modes of communication into one," says Kerry Greed, an electrical engineer at Skycross Inc., developer of the soon-to-be-released MLA. The antenna operates with circular polarization for satellite reception. It can also be electrically switched to a linear polarization for terrestrial use. The antenna switches from circular to linear polarization by combining two orthogonal elements with a 90-degree hybrid phase shifter. For linear, only one of two elements is used. The patented LAN antenna operates from 600 MHz to 2.5 GHz. It measures 1.4 × 0.97 × 0.21 inches and transmits wireless signals in an omni-directional azimuth pattern. "An omnidirectional azimuth pattern can be visualized as an expanding 3D donut shape around a device. This pattern provides better coverage for terrestrial wireless links because it focuses the beam in a flat circle uniformly in the horizontal plane around the user, providing the best possible connection with the tower, assuming that the antenna is not actively controlled," says Greer. "No energy is wasted up in the sky or down on the ground," he says. However, he notes that for satellite links (i.e. GPS), this pattern would not be appropriate. "In that case you would want an upward-focused beam pattern that points toward the sky, which the antenna also provides in the circular polarization mode," notes Greer. He indicates that samples will become available in the third quarter of this year. Skycross owns commercial rights to the technology. For more information, contact Skycross, 300 A North Dr., Melbourne, FL 32934, www.skycross.com or Greer at (321) 308-6618.
What makes this movie stand out from the typical high school sports story is that the teenagers are undocumented immigrants, and the big game is a NASA-sponsored marine robotics competition. Like many other Hollywood movies, however, Spare Parts only tells part of the story. What the film shows -- and doesn’t show -- raises important issues affecting STEM education in the US.
Instead of sifting through huge amounts of technical data looking for answers to assembly problems, engineers can now benefit from 3M's new initiative -- 3M Assembly Solutions. The company has organized its wealth of adhesive and tape solutions into six typical application areas, making it easier to find the best products to solve their real-world assembly and bonding problems.
Load dump occurs when a discharged battery is disconnected while the alternator is generating current and other loads remain on the alternator circuit. If left alone, the electrical spikes and transients will be transmitted along the power line, leading to malfunctions in individual electronics/sensors or permanent damage to the vehicle’s electronic system. Bottom line: An uncontrolled load dump threatens the overall safety and reliability of the vehicle.
Focus on Fundamentals consists of 45-minute on-line classes that cover a host of technologies. You learn without leaving the comfort of your desk. All classes are taught by subject-matter experts and all are archived. So if you can't attend live, attend at your convenience.
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3.1 Evaluation 3.1.2 The Evaluation Model 18.104.22.168 Form Evaluation 22.214.171.124.1 Symbols as Forms
126.96.36.199.1.4 Symbols Naming Both Lexical and Dynamic Variables
The same symbol can name both
a lexical variable
and a dynamic variable,
but never in the same lexical environment.
In the following example, the symbol x is used,
at different times,
as the name of a lexical variable
and as the name of a dynamic variable.
(let ((x 1)) ;Binds a special variable X
(declare (special x))
(let ((x 2)) ;Binds a lexical variable X
(+ x ;Reads a lexical variable X
(locally (declare (special x))
x)))) ;Reads a special variable X
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I checked the abstract again and all the numbers are correct. Here it is: "The Intel 32nm Poulson processor contains 3.1 billion transistors integrated onto a single 544mm2 silicon die size. Eight processor cores and a total of 54MB of on-chip cache are linked by an on-chip ring-like interconnect bus."
I calculated 2.7B instead of ~2.6B because I used 1MBit=1024*1024=1.049 million cells. Either way it does not make too much difference. For comparison, the 45nm Xeon 7500 (aka Nahalem-EX) had 2.3B transistors and a total of 26.5 MB of cache which leaves about 1B for other things, much more reasonable.
It is interesting that a simple CPU captures our imagination at the same time that an extremely complex one is rolling out. I suspect that it is because small numbers are easier to grasp than large ones - and because we can appreciate that a device built with simple materials and a simple architecture has the potential to be incorporated in unexpected ways in existing products.
@pixies, Polymer is a solid state material, although it is not semicondcutor so everything is good with the ISSCCC name! BTW, everything can be a solid state (if the temperature is right ;-) so they selected pretty general name...Kris
Intel uses 8T SRAM for lower level cache. Assuming all 6T, 54MB of cache would have a SRAM cell transistor count of 2.7B already. That leaves only 0.4B for redundancy, cache peripheral, and the 8 cores. Do the numbers add up right?
A Book For All Reasons Bernard Cole1 Comment Robert Oshana's recent book "Software Engineering for Embedded Systems (Newnes/Elsevier)," written and edited with Mark Kraeling, is a 'book for all reasons.' At almost 1,200 pages, it ...
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Monitoring Processes with Kill
If you have a process ID but aren't sure whether it's valid, you can use the most unlikely of candidates
to test it: the kill command. If you don't see any reference to this on the kill(1) man page, check the info
pages. The man/info page states that signal 0 is special and that the exit code from kill tells whether a
signal could be sent to the specified process (or processes).
So kill -0 will not terminate the process, and the return status can be used to determine whether
a process is running. For example:
$ echo $$ # show our process id 12833 $ /bin/bash # create new process $ echo $$ # show new process id 12902 $ kill -0 12902 $ echo $? # exists, exit code is 0 0 $ exit # return to previous shell $ kill -0 12902 bash: kill: (12902) - No such process $ echo $? # doesn't exist, exit code is 1 1
Many UNIX dæmons store their process IDs in a file in /var/run when they are started. Using kill
-0 to test the pid is a lot easier than parsing ps output. For example, to test whether cron is
running, do the following:
# kill -0 $(cat /var/run/cron.pid) # echo $? 0
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Cloud computing is currently one of technology’s hottest topics. The sector is growing rapidly and some are warning that it could be the next big tech bubble. It is clear to most Chief Technology Officers of major corporations, though, that it is a technology with a rich history that is sure to continue going in the right direction.
The true beginning of cloud computing was actually back in the 1950’s, when large-scale mainframes were able to be purchased by schools and corporations. The mainframes were installed in large rooms that were essentially server rooms, while access to the mainframes could be achieved through “dumb terminals.” These terminals were stations that only worked to create access to the mainframes; they would have multiple users on each station.
In the 1970’s the mainframe concept from the 50’s was built upon by the IBM Virtual Machine. This allowed multiple virtual systems to be on a single node. This was perhaps one of the biggest innovations in preparing cloud technology for where it would go in the future (today amd tomorrow). Every user had their own custom operating system that included CPUs, hard drives and networking.
By the 1990’s costs of cloud services were lowering, but services were still only offered as single dedicated point to point connections. Telecommunications companies started to offer quality service on their dedicated servers that helped to lower costs further. The Internet was starting to become more accessible and the next logical step for cloud computing was going to be taking it online.
Hardware costs coming down created a shift in the way that those who had servers thought about using the resource. The frame of mind changed from splitting servers up to, how can I combine several servers creating more space that can be used? This was the basic starting stance for cloud computing as we know it today. When you install and configure software called a Hypevisor, which goes across multiple physical nodes, you are able to allow the whole of the system to be segmented out as needed.
According to Red Hat CEO Jim Whitehurst, “This will be the year when cloud architectures go from experimentation to deployment, where big data goes from promise to production, and when we get our first glimpse at how these innovations could potentially change our world.” The last several years have seen customers slowly toying with the cloud and learning how to navigate and integrate better.
However, now in 2014, we are seeing users taking bigger steps into the cloud and making significantly more use of what it has to offer. Amazon.com has one of the largest clouds currently, where users can use the AWS cloud not only for application development, but also for production.
David Turner, CEO of Grouplink and SkyCentral, a cloud software company that services the biz-op space, expounds on Whitehurst’s thoughts. “We as a company have made significant investments in cloud technology. We believe that most organizations will rely heavily on cloud technology for their business operations and IT needs due to the financial benefits. Cloud-delivered software is a boon to medium-sized companies that have the need for enterprise solutions, but may not be able to afford the infrastructure of an on-premise solution.”
Cloud computing is going to continue expanding its reach and depth into our lives, both personally and commercially. Studies have concluded that within the next five to 10 years, more than half of all information technology will be in the cloud. This cloud computing phenomenon will have a major impact on nations like China, Brazil, Russia and India that are currently far behind in the market. These markets will be able to take advantage of the rapidly decreasing costs of upgrading infrastructure. They will be able to have access to the cloud and further technologies as a result.
One concern that has slowed, but not stopped the growth in the cloud, and which will continue to be addressed in the future, is security. The government of Singapore even took steps and launched a cloud security standard to help combat the concern. As more countries begin to explore the cloud and take advantage of what it has to offer, we can be sure to see more companies and countries offensively combating security concerns; they will have to in order to build trust in the lucrative financial and banking sectors, as well for personal consumers.
The cloud is a major part of the future of technology and is promising to be one of the fastest growing global innovations over the next few years. Asia Pacific is being tagged as the leader in growth in the next three years and is projected to generate over 1.5 zettabytes of cloud traffic annually by 2016 — at that time it will be the largest in the world. It is difficult to see how companies and consumers will thrive without it in the future.
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RAID Array Calc
By Randy Gawer
Open iTunes to buy and download apps.
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disks. RAID is a method of combining several hard drives into one unit. It offers fault tolerance and higher throughput levels than a single hard drive or group of independent hard drives.
This RAID calculator computes array characteristics given the disk capacity, the number of disks, and the array type.
Calculates for RAID levels:
RAID Level 0 (Stripe set)
RAID Level 1 (Mirror)
RAID Level 0+1 (Stripe+Mirror)
RAID Level 3 (Byte-level striping with dedicated parity)
RAID Level 4 (Block-level striping with dedicated parity)
RAID Level 5 (Stripe with parity)
- USD 0.99
- Category: Utilities
- Released: 04 January 2011
- Version: 1.0.1
- Size: 0.1 MB
- Language: English
- Developer: Randy Gawer
- © 2010
Compatibility: Requires iOS 3.0 or later. Compatible with iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch.
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We used two platforms. One test platform was the Fluke Networks AirCheck WiFi tester. The AirCheck contains a 2 x 2 antenna system, and thus can support only two spatial streams.
The second test platform was a Lenovo T-410 Laptop that was able to take advantage of the performance boost offered by a WiFi router with a 3 x 3 antenna configuration (see Joanie Wexler's article on how these configurations differ).
Each of the routers was placed in the same location at the top of an equipment rack in the lab. The device was placed on a defunct Intel Fast Ethernet switch, which would be a typical location in an office environment. Each device was located about six feet above floor level. Where necessary we changed the location and orientation of each device to get the best results possible.
We conducted several tests using the Lenovo laptop computer. One was to measure the distance over which the WiFi router could deliver a standard music video without exhibiting any data loss as evidenced by audio or video breakup, or pixilization.
The distance measurements took place on a surveyed test range that allowed measurements up to 300 feet. Testing required clear weather both because of potential damage to the test equipment if it got wet, and because of potential signal attenuation from rain or from evergreen trees. (When wet, evergreen needles can act like thousands of antennas, and could produce unpredictable results.)
FTP testing took place in the test facility at distances of 15 feet and 50 feet. The longer range included two exterior and two interior walls. We used the given transfer times as relative indicators of file transfer rates, and we ran them several times to find an average because the FTP transfer times varied widely. The FTP target was an HP xw series workstation with two dual core Xeon processors, directly connected to the network core switch by Gigabit Ethernet. The WiFi router was also connected to the same Gigabit Ethernet switch to reduce latency.
The performance tests conducted by the Fluke AirCheck consisted of a stream of 64-byte ping packets. The rate of packet transmission reflects the overall performance of the WiFi device. The AirCheck displays the actual bandwidth of the WiFi device as well as a chart showing the performance over time. The level of packet loss is displayed on the same screen. The test consisted of moving the AirCheck progressively farther from the WiFi device until the first packet loss appeared. We tested this through several iterations.
The streaming video test used Windows Media Player to stream video from a Buffalo LinkServer, also connected to the core switch using Gigabit Ethernet. Distance measurements were at the first indication of signal disruption, usually a breakup of the audio or video stream as the laptop was moved progressively farther from the WiFi device. Tests for signal loss included changing the orientation of the laptop antennas during several iterations of the test.
For Internet connectivity, we used a cable connection provided by Cox Communications that has a nominal speed of 25Mbps for downloads and 3Mbps for uploads, although Cox does not throttle its network so those speeds can be much higher in off-peak hours. This was reflected in all of the router test results when we accessed content from the Internet - it didn't matter how fast the router was, the speed of the Internet connection is the controlling factor.
We conducted usability testing by first following the instructions in whatever served as documentation delivered with the device. Usually this documentation was a poster or short pamphlet. On the first try, even if we knew that a step was being skipped in the instructions, we followed the instructions to determine if an inexperienced user would be able to configure the device. When that didn't work (which it usually didn't), we would start again and perform the obviously missing steps. In each case we first started with whatever the vendor delivered as a setup wizard, and performed a manual installation only if the wizard failed.
Once the initial setup was complete, we would then configure the device manually to set up security, network addressing, attached devices and the like, using whatever context sensitive help that was available, and using the manual where necessary. Except where noted, the setup wizards only performed very basic setup, and usually that didn't include any security. Usability testing also included inspection of the exterior indicators, markings that would help us understand or set up the device if the instructions were lost, or notices as to proper operation or diagnosis.
In what may be a first for the technology industry, RSA Conference 2015 next month apparently will be...
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The SDN project now has a security response team to quickly handle new vulnerability reports
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As CIOs become overwhelmed by IT demands, chief data officers (CDOs) are stepping in to serve as a...
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Virtual Data Room - VDR
A Virtual Data Room (VDR) is a series of proprietary extranets that provide an online repository of data. Businesses typically use a secure virtual data room to share critical information with external customers and partners in a secure, online environment. The Virtual Data Room enables parties to view documents relevant to a particular transaction for authorized users. Documents are stored in electronic format on a central server and accessed via the Internet.
Secure, Virtual Meeting Rooms
VDRs are assumed to be secure and confidential virtual meeting rooms where buyers, attorneys, accountants and other professionals can review sensitive documents. Initially, VDRs were mainly used by lawyers to meet with clients, but today VDRs are used in a wide array of businesses where a cost-effective way to eliminate the need for a physical data or consultation room is needed.
A Virtual Data Room is commonly called a Virtual Deal Room.
Perceptual computing is the ability for a computer to recognize what is going on around it. More specifically, the computer can perceive the... Read More »Apple Pay Promises to Strengthen Payment Security
Experts believe that Apple Pay and other competitive payment systems will be far more secure than cards, even cards equipped with EMV chips. Read More »The Great Data Storage Debate: Is Tape Dead?
Tape clearly is on the decline. But remember, legacy systems can hang for a shockingly long time. Read More »
A network is a group of two or more computer systems or devices, linked together to share resources, exchange files and electronic communications.... Read More »Computer Architecture Study Guide
This Webopedia study guide describes the different parts of a computer system and their relations. Read More »Webopedia Polls
The trend for the past two years has been for shoppers to spend more online during the holiday season. How do you typically shop for holiday... Read More »
Stay up to date on the latest developments in Internet terminology with a free weekly newsletter from Webopedia. Join to subscribe now.
- Watch Datamation's editor James Maguire moderate roundtable discussions with tech experts from companies such as Accenture, Dell, Blue Jeans Network, Microsoft and more »
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ASP COM Component in Microsoft Visual Basic
Tutorials Shared by the Internet Community
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Total Hits: 22298
Total Votes: 149 votes
Submitted on: 2008-03-05 00:35:03
Submitted By: Devesh Khanna
Description:COM stands for Component Object Model. COM components are an essential part of ASP. If you are not familiar with COM and would like to have an overview of what it is then please read Sample Chapter from Beginning ATL 3 COM Programming.
In this tutorial I will guide you step by step in creation of an ASP COM component using Microsoft Visual Basic. After this tutorial you will be able to develop on your own relatively simple components for use in your ASP pages. More detail...
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Provided by: manpages-dev_3.21-1_all
feclearexcept, fegetexceptflag, feraiseexcept, fesetexceptflag,
fetestexcept, fegetenv, fegetround, feholdexcept, fesetround, fesetenv,
feupdateenv, feenableexcept, fedisableexcept, fegetexcept - floating-
point rounding and exception handling
int feclearexcept(int excepts);
int fegetexceptflag(fexcept_t *flagp, int excepts);
int feraiseexcept(int excepts);
int fesetexceptflag(const fexcept_t *flagp, int excepts);
int fetestexcept(int excepts);
int fesetround(int rounding_mode);
int fegetenv(fenv_t *envp);
int feholdexcept(fenv_t *envp);
int fesetenv(const fenv_t *envp);
int feupdateenv(const fenv_t *envp);
Link with -lm.
These eleven functions were defined in C99, and describe the handling
of floating-point rounding and exceptions (overflow, zero-divide etc.).
The divide-by-zero exception occurs when an operation on finite numbers
produces infinity as exact answer.
The overflow exception occurs when a result has to be represented as a
floating-point number, but has (much) larger absolute value than the
largest (finite) floating-point number that is representable.
The underflow exception occurs when a result has to be represented as a
floating-point number, but has smaller absolute value than the smallest
positive normalized floating-point number (and would lose much accuracy
when represented as a denormalized number).
The inexact exception occurs when the rounded result of an operation is
not equal to the infinite precision result. It may occur whenever
overflow or underflow occurs.
The invalid exception occurs when there is no well-defined result for
an operation, as for 0/0 or infinity - infinity or sqrt(-1).
Exceptions are represented in two ways: as a single bit (exception
present/absent), and these bits correspond in some implementation-
defined way with bit positions in an integer, and also as an opaque
structure that may contain more information about the exception
(perhaps the code address where it occurred).
Each of the macros FE_DIVBYZERO, FE_INEXACT, FE_INVALID, FE_OVERFLOW,
FE_UNDERFLOW is defined when the implementation supports handling of
the corresponding exception, and if so then defines the corresponding
bit(s), so that one can call exception handling functions, for example,
using the integer argument FE_OVERFLOW|FE_UNDERFLOW. Other exceptions
may be supported. The macro FE_ALL_EXCEPT is the bitwise OR of all
bits corresponding to supported exceptions.
The feclearexcept() function clears the supported exceptions
represented by the bits in its argument.
The fegetexceptflag() function stores a representation of the state of
the exception flags represented by the argument excepts in the opaque
The feraiseexcept() function raises the supported exceptions
represented by the bits in excepts.
The fesetexceptflag() function sets the complete status for the
exceptions represented by excepts to the value *flagp. This value must
have been obtained by an earlier call of fegetexceptflag() with a last
argument that contained all bits in excepts.
The fetestexcept() function returns a word in which the bits are set
that were set in the argument excepts and for which the corresponding
exception is currently set.
The rounding mode determines how the result of floating-point
operations is treated when the result cannot be exactly represented in
the signifcand. Various rounding modes may be provided: round to
nearest (the default), round up (towards positive infinity), round down
(towards negative infinity), and round towards zero.
Each of the macros FE_TONEAREST, FE_UPWARD, FE_DOWNWARD, and
FE_TOWARDZERO is defined when the implementation supports getting and
setting the corresponding rounding direction.
The fegetround() function returns the macro corresponding to the
current rounding mode.
The fesetround() function sets the rounding mode as specified by its
argument and returns zero when it was successful.
C99 and POSIX.1-2008 specify an identifier, FLT_ROUNDS, defined in
<float.h>, which indicates the implementation-defined rounding behavior
for floating-point addition. This identifier has one of the following
-1 The rounding mode is not determinable.
0 Rounding is towards 0.
1 Rounding is towards nearest number.
2 Rounding is towards positive infinity.
3 Rounding is towards negative infinity.
Other values represent machine-dependent, non-standard rounding modes.
The value of FLT_ROUNDS should reflect the current rounding mode as set
by fesetround() (but see BUGS).
The entire floating-point environment, including control modes and
status flags, can be handled as one opaque object, of type fenv_t. The
default environment is denoted by FE_DFL_ENV (of type const fenv_t *).
This is the environment setup at program start and it is defined by ISO
C to have round to nearest, all exceptions cleared and a non-stop
(continue on exceptions) mode.
The fegetenv() function saves the current floating-point environment in
the object *envp.
The feholdexcept() function does the same, then clears all exception
flags, and sets a non-stop (continue on exceptions) mode, if available.
It returns zero when successful.
The fesetenv() function restores the floating-point environment from
the object *envp. This object must be known to be valid, for example,
the result of a call to fegetenv() or feholdexcept() or equal to
FE_DFL_ENV. This call does not raise exceptions.
The feupdateenv() function installs the floating-point environment
represented by the object *envp, except that currently raised
exceptions are not cleared. After calling this function, the raised
exceptions will be a bitwise OR of those previously set with those in
*envp. As before, the object *envp must be known to be valid.
These functions return zero on success and non-zero if an error
These functions first appeared in glibc in version 2.1.
IEC 60559 (IEC 559:1989), ANSI/IEEE 854, C99, POSIX.1-2001.
If possible, the GNU C Library defines a macro FE_NOMASK_ENV which
represents an environment where every exception raised causes a trap to
occur. You can test for this macro using #ifdef. It is only defined
if _GNU_SOURCE is defined. The C99 standard does not define a way to
set individual bits in the floating-point mask, for example, to trap on
specific flags. glibc 2.2 supports the functions feenableexcept() and
fedisableexcept() to set individual floating-point traps, and
fegetexcept() to query the state.
int feenableexcept(int excepts);
int fedisableexcept(int excepts);
The feenableexcept() and fedisableexcept() functions enable (disable)
traps for each of the exceptions represented by excepts and return the
previous set of enabled exceptions when successful, and -1 otherwise.
The fegetexcept() function returns the set of all currently enabled
C99 specifies that the value of FLT_ROUNDS should reflect changes to
the current rounding mode, as set by fesetround(). Currently, this
does not occur: FLT_ROUNDS always has the value 1.
This page is part of release 3.21 of the Linux man-pages project. A
description of the project, and information about reporting bugs, can
be found at http://www.kernel.org/doc/man-pages/.
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CCKShort for Complementary Code Keying, a set of 64 eight-bit code words used to encode data for 5.5 and 11Mbps data rates in the 2.4GHz band of 802.11b wireless networking. The code words have unique mathematical properties that allow them to be correctly distinguished from one another by a receiver even in the presence of substantial noise and multipath interference.
CCK works only in conjunction with the DSSS technology that is specified in the original 802.11 standard. It does not work with FHSS. CCK applies sophisticated mathematical formulas to the DSSS codes, permitting the codes to represent a greater volume of information per clock cycle. The transmitter can then send multiple bits of information with each DSSS code, enough to make possible the 11Mbps of data rather than the 2Mbps in the original standard.
Perceptual computing is the ability for a computer to recognize what is going on around it. More specifically, the computer can perceive the... Read More »Apple Pay Promises to Strengthen Payment Security
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Abbreviated as CA, a trusted third party organization or company that issues digital certificates used to create digital signatures and public-private key pairs. The role of the CA in this process is to guarantee that the individual granted the unique certificate is, in fact, who he or she claims to be. Usually, this means that the CA has an arrangement with a financial institution, such as a credit card company, which provides it with information to confirm an individual's claimed identity. CAs are a critical component in data security and electronic commerce because they guarantee that the two parties exchanging information are really who they claim to be.
Also referred to as a certificate authority.
Perceptual computing is the ability for a computer to recognize what is going on around it. More specifically, the computer can perceive the... Read More »Apple Pay Promises to Strengthen Payment Security
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Stay up to date on the latest developments in Internet terminology with a free weekly newsletter from Webopedia. Join to subscribe now.
- Watch Datamation's editor James Maguire moderate roundtable discussions with tech experts from companies such as Accenture, Dell, Blue Jeans Network, Microsoft and more »
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Page 1 of 4
WPF was Microsoft's killer UI construction kit - a second generation GUI. Then it looked as if it was on the way out but with Windows Forms in maintenance mode and a new interest in WPF it is still a good choice for your desktop projects.
This article is a short introduction to WPF - not only using it but a little of how it works and the philosophy behind it.
To follow the examples you will need a copy of Visual Studio - Community edition will do and the examples will be in C#. The ideas however apply to any .NET language and converting the examples to Visual Basic say is trivial - as most of the code is build up of method calls and XAML.You also need to have the latest .NET Framework installed.
If you start a new project you will see that as well as Windows Forms Application - which is the original way of creating a forms based application - you also have a choice of a number of WPF application types.
Notice that these differences are not just cosmetic.
A Windows forms application implements the application using the way Windows worked originally - with one message loop per window. A WPF application brings a completely new event handling technology with it that does away with multiple message loops and uses a message routing system instead.
In short WPF applications do things differently - they don't just look different.
Getting started - the basics of XAML
If you open a new Windows Application (WPF) project you will discover many of the immediately obvious differences between WPF and Windows Forms.
The most obvious is that now there is a new file type called by default Window1.xaml. XAML, eXtensible Application Markup Language – pronounced “zamel”, is a markup language introduced to allow user interfaces to be defined without the need to program.
You can think of it as HTML on steroids but there is also much more to say about it. XAML probably represents the single biggest innovation in WPF so much so that it is used in non-WPF project types such as WinRT apps.
As well as the .xaml file, the system also generates an associated .cs code file with the same name, i.e. Window1.xaml.cs by default. This is where you write the code that manipulates the user interface components specified in the XAML file.
If you have ever worked with ASP .NET this will sound very familiar – it is HTML with “code behind”. You can view the shift to WPF and XAML as away of making web and desktop programming similar. Some might say that the split into code and HTML is what makes web programming difficult and introducing the same split to desktop programming simply make everything worse.
If you run the generated project it should compile successfully and display a blank form. To make it a little more interesting let’s add a button and make it do something.
The principles behind what is going on will be explained in a moment but you should be struck by how similar it all is to using HTML to create a web page.
You can build a WPF form using the interactive designer - just drop a button on the form and customise it using the properties box. But unlike Windows Forms applications the interactive designer creates a XAML tag which specifies the button and all its properties.
Let's take a closer look at XAML and work with it directly for a moment.
If you select the Window1.xaml file you will see a designer window and below it the XAML that generates the form. In a Windows forms application the designer generated code in what ever language you were using - C#, VB or whatever - to create the buttons and other controls on the form. In the case of a WPF application the designer generates XAML. The XAML specifies the objects and their properties that make up the user interface. When you run the program the XAML compiler converts the XAML into instances of objects using the .NET Framework.
That is if there is a XAML tag which specifies a button then when you compile and run the program the XAML compiler creates an instance of the button object and initialises all its properties correctly ready for your program to use.
It is in this sense that XAML is a language for object creation and initialisation.
Let's take a look at some XAML.
The designer and XAML tab
With the Window1.xaml file select, select the XAML tab and between the <Grid> and </Grid> tags add the following:
This is the XAML markup for a button called Button1, at the specified size and at a default location (the centre of the form). A click event handler is also defined as OnClick1 and the initial content i.e. the button’s label is set to “Click Me”.
As the designer renders any XAML you enter directly you will be able to see the button you have just defined in the pane above.
The button and the XAML
Now if you select the code page and enter:
void OnClick1(object sender,
Button1.Content = "Hello World";
Notice that the code “knows” the name of the button that you have defined using XAML and the connection is made automatically that this OnClick function is indeed the event handler you specified in the XAML.
When you first encounter this automatic connection between the XAML markup and the code it feels odd - as if there is more going on behind the scenes than you can see. Later you simply accept it and make use of it.
Now if you run the program you will see a button in the middle of the form inviting you to click it and when you do it will say “Hello World”.
Your first WPF application
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Hello I have a program to write and I want to make it load a file.The problem is that I want the user to give the name of the file that he wants to load.He will write the name of the file and the program will search for the file in a certain folder(I know the name of the folder)and then load it in the program.A part of my code so far is:
printf("Give the name of the file you want to open.
gets(search); //"search" is the name of the file to load
I want to know how to write the fopen command in order to search for the file inside a specific folder
0 · ·
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Profilers identify bottlenecks in Perl programs
SmallProf Line Profiler
Of course, some modules do not have very sophisticated logging mechanisms. Thankfully, Perl has a number of profilers that measure the amount of time each line of source code uses.
Table 1 shows the major CPAN profilers for various tasks in ascending release order.
The CPAN Devel::SmallProf line profiler autonomously measures run times and formats the data for analysis. If you launch the script you want to test via perl -d:SmallProf ./amzn, the profiler creates a smallprof.out file that lists the time used by each line in each module used.
In the case of a fairly complex action like a web request and ensuing XML analysis of the returned data, the resultant file can be enormous – in this case, it weighed in at no fewer than 25,792 lines.
Discovering the worst time hogs is not an easy task, but the shell command
sort -k 2,2 smallprof.out | less
sorts the file numerically on the second field from the left. This field contains the wall clock time in seconds used by a line of source code, which is the time actually used whether the task gave the CPU something to do or just left it idle, waiting for external events, such as incoming network packages, for example. In addition, the third field contains the CPU seconds, which is the computational time actually used.
If you scroll down to line 17,104 in smallprof.out, as shown in Figure 3, you will see that the line responsible for the wait issues a select command. The can_read function in the LWP::Protocol::http::SocketMethods module is responsible for this.
The CPAN module Devel::NYTProf is a relatively new development . The strange-sounding name came about because the module was developed for the New York Times and based on the Devel::FastProf codebase. Their IT department decided to release the source code.
This excellent profiler is maintained by DBI inventor Tim Bunce today. Bunce presented his work to the Perl community at OSCON 2008 . Although I was in the audience, I couldn't concentrate on his talk because I was up next with my Log4perl talk.
After the CPAN shell-assisted installation (perl -MCPAN -e'install Devel::NYTProf'), you type perl -d:NYTProf amzn to launch the profiler on the script. To convert its binary logfile nytprof.out to professionally formatted HTML, use the nytprofhtml script included with the package.
Firing up a browser and pointing it to the index.html file in the newly created nytprof directory (URL file:///...nytprof/index.html) reveals what has been going on. The table in Figure 4 lists the hotspots. It shows the number of calls, the number of places (P) they have been issued, the files (F) they are located in, and the time spent executing each function. The tool differentiates between "exclusive time" and "inclusive time," the former referring to the time spent exclusively in the function's code and the latter referring to the total time, including the subfunctions called by the function.
The HTML links the function names with HTML pages providing details on the function code – a very practical idea that lets the user flip back and forth and greatly facilitates the analysis. Figure 5, for example, shows details that were very difficult to obtain with SmallProf; that is, the select() command in the can_read() function in an LWP module is causing the delays. On an open network socket, it waits for the first signs of the response returned by Amazon.
NYTProf supports three different reporting modes for displaying the time spent by the source code: line mode (one time value per line), block mode (one time value per block of Perl), and sub mode (one time value per function). Clicking toggles the performance de-tective through the different display variants.
The module-level view of the profiler in Figure 6 also reveals some interesting facts. The XML analysis of the Amazon web response took 9,963 lines of code and 400 calls to the collapse() function XML::Simple.
Because it ran at full speed, the whole kit and caboodle took just 35msec, but this just goes to show how complex it is to parse XML.
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The PS/2 lineup of computers, introduced in 1987, was an effort by IBM to take back the initiative in the PC market. With PS/2 came new technology and a refreshed look, which IBM thought would help it claw back market share from clone manufacturers.
But instead of re-establishing IBM’s dominance over the PC market, the PS/2 ended up being one of the big failures in tech history, as well as the beginning of the end for IBM’s PC business.
Putting personal back in IBM PC
When IBM introduced the first PC in 1981, it quickly came under attack from clone manufacturers, such as Compaq. Since it was made out of standard components, with only the BIOS and BASIC being proprietary to IBM, the PC was ripe for copying and mass manufacturing.
After Phoenix reverse-engineered IBM’s BIOS, there was little to stop anyone making a PC that worked exactly like, or even better than, the real thing.
Then April 2, 1987, IBM introduced its third generation of personal computers, the PS/2. IBM had been losing market share to clone-manufacturers, and introduced the PS/2 with a proprietary bus architecture – Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) – in an attempt to stem the tide of increasing competition.
At launch, you had three models to choose from, ranging from $1,695 to $10,995. In today’s prices, adjusted for inflation, that’s $3,400 to $22,000.
If you paid the top price you got a PS/2 Model 80 with an 20 MHz Intel 80386DX processor, 2 MB of RAM, 3.5-inch floppy drive, and a 115 MB hard drive.
The beginning of the end of the IBM PC
IBM spent a lot of money and effort making the PS/2 computers reliable inside and out. If you’ve ever come across a PS/2, we’re sure you agree that the expression “built like a tank” is appropriate.
With the PS/2, IBM introduced a range of technologies to PCs, for example the 1440 kB 3.5-inch floppy disk format, 72-pin RAM SIMMs, the PS/2 port, and the VGA video standard (resolution up to 640 x 480). Many of these quickly became standard features across all PCs.
But PS/2 computers, at least the early ones, were woefully underpowered compared to what else was on the market at the time, as well as more expensive than the clones.
The deathblow to the PS/2 was the industry’s rejection of the MCA bus technology. That which IBM saw as the savior, companies bypassed and went for the common ISA standard instead. MCA was technically superior to ISA, not the least in terms of transfer speed, but without widespread adoption, it was dead in the water.
Thus, IBM’s hope of taking back the PC business from clone manufacturers was gone, and it all ended when IBM sold its PC division to China’s Lenovo in December 2004.
Here’s an ad from 1989, with IBM telling you to just “PS/2 it!”
IBM will always be associated with the PC
That’s the story, in a nutshell, of the IBM PS/2. It was a series of computers that IBM put high hopes on, but that, in the end, delivered very little. Although IBM no longer has a PC business, the company is still among us, and doing well. IBM had revenue of $29.5 billion in the fourth quarter 2011.
There’s no getting away from the fact that IBM will forever be associated with PCs. However, the PS/2 is not something that most people remember, and IBM too, may want to not dwell too much on one of its biggest failures.
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Dynamically typed languages.
Dynamically typed languages such as Python and Ruby have experienced a rapid grown in popularity in recent times. However, there is much confusion as to what makes these languages interesting relative to statically typed languages, and little knowledge of their rich history. In this chapter I explore the general topic of dynamically typed languages, how they dier from statically typed languages, their history, and their defining features.
|Item Type:||Book Section|
Originally published in 'IEEE Software', 24 (5) 2007. pp. 28-30. ISSN 0740-7459
|Research Areas:||A. > School of Science and Technology > Computer and Communications Engineering|
|Deposited On:||27 May 2010 11:57|
|Last Modified:||29 Jul 2014 18:10|
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Thanks for the help Show transcribed image textA seismic signal g(t) = 10 cos (1000 pi t) + 20 cos (2000 pi t) is to be uniformly sampled for digital transmission. What is the maximum allowable time interval between two adjacent sample values that will ensure perfect signal reproduction? b) A TV signal with a bandwidth of 4.2 MHz is digitally transmitted. Assuming Nyquist sampling rate as well the fact that 9 bits represent each sample, what is the bit rate required to transmit this TV signal?
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You may have read recently in the news about the Netherlands Data Protection law being scrapped as it breaches human rights legislation. This isn’t the first time that a country has had challenges with data retention legislation or with the clash between data retention and human rights.
Data retention is a complex issue. On the one hand data retention is a good thing as it ensures that historic data is captured forever and can be looked back over. This means that historic data can be used for learning and building upon. On the other hand that data could be used for all sorts of other uses. It could be used for evidence in court cases, it could be used to fight crime and for all sorts of other purposes.
The use of data is the issue that adds the complexity to data retention. Collecting and retaining data for 1 year – 10 years isn’t a technical challenge or even a business challenge. It is a moral one. Who should own that data, where should it be stored and who should have access to it?
Who should own the data about you? Should it be you, your government, your service providers, your infrastructure providers or an independent third party? Each of these options have their benefits and drawbacks. On a personal level we all like to think that we own our data however on a broader spectrum we currently give our data to third parties such as our phone providers, our governments and even our social network providers.
It is our basic human right to decide who we provide our information to. What we don’t have control over is how long those providers have access to that information and how they then use that information about us. This is where the challenges get complicated.
Historically we have controlled our data but our providers have owned it. The trend now is that we are beginning to understand what that means and we no longer all want our data to be owned, managed and controlled by third parties to use as they please.
We will start to see data being seen as more important than ever and new innovative approaches to us owning and controlling our personal data and the access to that data.
When we provide our data to third parties such as our government or our service providers we have no idea where or how that data may be used. For that matter we don’t know where that data is being stored or shared unless someone contacts us to let us know. This again is a challenge.
Where should our data be stored. Should it be under our control which countries and companies have access to our personal data? How would that affect how our data was used and would it be in our best interest for it to be stored by us in a location of our choosing?
We have already touched upon data access a little but when we are looking at personal data we can’t help but talk about the access to that data. When third parties control our data they have the ability to share that data with whomever they choose. (subject to regulation of course) When we talk about this in terms of governments each government in each country has their own regulations on what can and can’t be done with personal data. Just compare the UK and the US for example. The regulations in these areas are vastly different.
So how does this affect us? On the simplest level data access is one of the key causes of cold callers to your phone. However data access also provides the ability to personalize advertising and online experiences. It also provides that ability to purchase things like road tax online here in the UK. There are benefits to having your personal data available to third parties. There are also down sides. If you don’t know how that data is being used or if it is used for malicious purposes it causes significant problems. Phishing scams online are just one example of this.
Access to our data is essential but who has access and how is key. So when you read headlines around data retention and privacy it is worth understanding how and who has access to your data.
The future is changing constantly and it will be interesting to see where the regulations end up in Europe and the rest of the world.
How do you see data retention changing in the future and how important is historic data really?
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Fourier transform is able to decompose images. Instead of analyzing a time varying signal, it decomposes a variation of intensity (gray levels) over distance. Time domain becomes space domain (time variable replaced by X-coordinate) and frequency is called spatial frequency.
As frequency refers to the (inverse of the) periodicity with which the sound sine wave repeats, the spatial frequency refers to the (inverse of the) periodicity with which the image intensity values change.
Image features that change in intensity over short image distances correspond to high spatial frequencies.
Image features that change in intensity over long image distances correspond to low spatial frequencies.
Agfa HealthCare Special Report Dose Management: because life is precious.
Olea Medical® case report on early & late MR diffusion follow-up of a stroke using CT perfusion.
Olea Medical® literature meta-analysis on CTP thresholds in acute stroke
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Hypervisors and the workloads they virtualize allow organizations to make more effective use of hardware.
When organizations began to discover that they were running workloads on physical servers with less than 15% utilization, they began turning to server virtualization hypervisors to increase the utilization levels of their physical servers to 80% or more.
A physical server running multiple virtual workloads -- usually 10, 20, 30 or more virtual workloads per physical server -- provides a more efficient utilization model and supports the concept of a green data center. The magic that makes server virtualization possible is a small piece of code called a hypervisor -- a tool that exposes hardware resources to support the operation of multiple virtual machines (VMs), which are operating system instances that are designed to share resources such as CPU cores, RAM, network interface cards (NICs) and storage. These are x86-based operating systems and can run Windows or Linux in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.
Getting the most out of your hypervisors
Hypervisors run workloads inside VMs, which are used to run the traditional networked services that organizations rely on to run their businesses. IT professionals continue to manage these workloads in the same way they always have -- a VM can behave and interact with the outside world in exactly the same way as a physical machine.
But physical server management has changed. This new operational model relegates server hardware to the same level as other hardware devices such as routers, switches and storage containers. Servers are resources that you can pool together into highly available clusters that ensure that the VMs running user-facing workloads are always available.
To obtain the most from your hypervisor, you must make sure you've selected the right one for your needs. Several types of hypervisors are on the market, and there are several manufacturers that offer hypervisors. To make the best decision, you should weigh the following factors and then determine which product best suits your organization.
Type 1 vs. Type 2 hypervisors
There are two types of hypervisors on the market: Type 1 (or bare-metal) hypervisors, which run directly on top of hardware, and Type 2, which run as applications on top of existing operating systems. Type 1 hypervisors support hardware virtualization, whereas Type 2 hypervisors support software virtualization. Check out this full virtualization hypervisor comparison.
Comparing hypervisors' performance metrics
Most hardware virtualization hypervisors -- VMware, Microsoft and Citrix Systems -- include similar basic features. One of the best ways to determine which hypervisor meets your needs is to compare their performance metrics. These include CPU overhead, amount of maximum host and guest memory and support for virtual processors.
But metrics alone should not support your choice. In addition to the capabilities of the hypervisor, you must also verify the guest operating systems that each hypervisor supports.
If you are running heterogeneous systems in your service network, then you must select the hypervisor that has support for the operating systems you currently run. If you run a homogeneous network based on Windows or Linux, then support for a smaller number of guest operating systems might fit your needs.
Additional selection criteria for hypervisors
The selection you make may well be based on other factors. For example, some organizations may opt for VMware just because it offers the oldest and most popular hardware virtualization hypervisor on the market.
Others may opt for Microsoft Hyper-V because they are already a Windows shop, or because it's free. Still others may opt for Citrix Systems XenServer because it is reputed to be a powerful virtualization platform, and they already have an existing relationship with Citrix through the use of its XenApp product. And there may be those who decide that the Big Three are not for them and go for a lesser-known hypervisor.
In the end, the choice you make will depend on a lot of factors. All hypervisors are not made equal, but they all offer similar features. Understanding the features they have as well as the guest operating systems each supports is an essential aspect of any hardware virtualization hypervisor selection process. Matching this data to your organization's requirements will be at the core of the decision you make.
About the experts
Danielle Ruest and Nelson Ruest are IT experts focused on continuous service availability and infrastructure optimization. They are authors of several books, including Virtualization: A Beginner's Guide and Windows Server 2008, The Complete Reference from McGraw Hill Osborne as well as the MCITP Self-Paced Training Kit (Exam 70-238): Deploying Messaging Solutions with Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 from MS Press. Their latest book is a training kit for Microsoft exam titled 70-652: Configuring Windows Server Virtualization with Hyper-V from MS Press. Contact them at [email protected].
Dig deeper on Virtualization vendor comparisons
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3: Enter your full question details here
Show transcribed image textConsider the following LTI systems with the given input-output relationships. For each case, find the impulse response of the system Two linear time-invariant systems, each with impulse response h(t), are connected in cascade. Given input x(t) = u(t), determine y(2). That is, determine the step response at time t = 2 for the cascaded system shown.
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c. 100 BC - c. 1 BC
Apollonius The Athenian, (flourished 1st century bc), sculptor known only by his signatures on the marble “Belvedere Torso,” now in the Vatican, and the bronze “Boxer,” now in the Museo Nazionale Romano of Rome. At one time these sculptures were thought to be 1st-century originals. Now it is believed they are fine 1st-century copies of original 2nd-century works; although the inscriptions are datable to the 1st century, the style of the sculptures is similar to that of the great altar at Pergamum, a key monument of the 2nd century. Thus, Apollonius appears to have been one of the most talented copyists of his time.
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Question: "Is the king of Tyre prophecy in Ezekiel 28 referring to Satan?"
Answer: At first glance, the prophecy in Ezekiel 28:11–19 seems to refer to a human king. The city of Tyre was the recipient of some of the strongest prophetic condemnations in the Bible (Isaiah 23:1–18; Jeremiah 25:22; 27:1–11; Ezekiel 26:1– 28:19; Joel 3:4–8; Amos 1:9, 10). Tyre was known for building its wealth by exploiting its neighbors. Ancient writers referred to Tyre as a city filled with unscrupulous merchants. Tyre was a center of religious idolatry and sexual immorality. The biblical prophets rebuked Tyre for its pride brought on by its great wealth and strategic location. Ezekiel 28:11–19 seems to be a particularly strong indictment against the king of Tyre in the prophet Ezekiel’s day, rebuking the king for his insatiable pride and greed.
However, some of the descriptions in Ezekiel 28:11–19 go beyond any mere human king. In no sense could an earthly king claim to be “in Eden” or to be “the anointed cherub who covers” or to be “on the holy mountain of God.” Therefore, most Bible interpreters believe that Ezekiel 28:11–19 is a dual prophecy, comparing the pride of the king of Tyre to the pride of Satan. Some propose that the king of Tyre was actually possessed by Satan, making the link between the two even more powerful and applicable.
Before his fall, Satan was indeed a beautiful creature (Ezekiel 28:12–13). He was perhaps the most beautiful and powerful of all the angels. The phrase “guardian cherub” possibly indicates that Satan was the angel who “guarded” God’s presence. Pride led to Satan’s fall. Rather than give God the glory for creating him so beautifully, Satan took pride in himself, thinking that he himself was responsible for his exalted status. Satan’s rebellion resulted in God casting Satan from His presence and will, eventually, result in God condemning Satan to the lake of fire for all eternity (Revelation 20:10).
Like Satan, the human king of Tyre was prideful. Rather than recognize God’s sovereignty, the king of Tyre attributed Tyre’s riches to his own wisdom and strength. Not satisfied with his extravagant position, the king of Tyre sought more and more, resulting in Tyre taking advantage of other nations, expanding its own wealth at the expense of others. But just as Satan’s pride led to his fall and will eventually lead to his eternal destruction, so will the city of Tyre lose its wealth, power, and status. Ezekiel’s prophecy of Tyre’s total destruction was fulfilled partially by Nebuchadnezzar (Ezekiel 29:17–21) and ultimately by Alexander the Great.
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Zur Novelle der Jahre 1848–1888. Stifter, Keller, Meyer, Storm
The novella from the Age of Realism does not represent literary reality, but literary artificiality. It is characterised by an aesthetic quality which until now has only been commented on marginally. The novellas display 'artfulness' by continuing the Romantic programme through strategies of aestheticisation of both a formal nature (e.g. framing) and a substantive kind (e.g. logical inconsistencies). ?Poetry of poetry’ is taken seriously as a guideline and runs counter to the efforts of the Realists to picture reality.
268 pages; ISBN 9783484971066
, or download in
Title: Poietischer Realismus
Author: Lars Korten
More Literary Criticism
- Academic > Literature > German literature > History of German literature > Modern
- Academic > Literature > German literature > Literary history and criticism
- Academic > Literature > German literature > Provincial, local, colonial, etc.
- Foreign Language Books > German
- Literary Criticism > European > German
- Foreign Language Study > German
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The Emperor convoked each ecumenical council, declaring its time, place, and purpose, and invited all the bishops of the Empire. After the partition of the Empire and the barbarian invasions, the Emperor only had jurisdiction over the East. In order for the bishops of the West to be represented, the Emperor would send an invitation to the Pope, who had patriarchal authority over all Latin bishops, and could act on their behalf. If a doctrine of the faith was in dispute, the Pope would prepare a definition of the faith, either on his own initiative or in consultation with the Latin bishops. Ecumenical councils took place in or near the imperial city of Constantinople, so it was generally feasible only for the bishops of that patriarchate to attend. The patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem attended in person or by proxy. The Pope never attended in person, but sent his legates with specific instructions on doctrinal matters.
Once an ecumenical council was convened, the papal legates presided over the synod on behalf of the Pope. The issues at hand were discussed among the bishops, and the pope's definition of faith was read to the assembly. The council would then give its assent to the definition, and use it as a basis for constructing its dogmatic constitutions, which define the faith, determine which persons or writings have fallen into heresy, and prescribe ecclesiastical penalties. The bishops could also issue disciplinary canons. At the close of a general council, the constitutions and canons were submitted to the Emperor so he could promulgate them throughout the Empire, while storing the original documents in the imperial archive. In this way the Emperor acts as guardian of the faith. Since the Pope did not attend in person, and he only authorized his legates to proclaim his definition of the faith, any further acts of the council needed papal ratification. After the council closed, the constitutions and canons were sent to the Pope for his signature. Only with papal approval could the acts be binding in the West, thereby giving the council true ecumenical status. The Pope sometimes elected to exclude or qualify some of the constitutions or canons in his ratification. Any decree or canon excluded by the Pope would not have ecumenical authority, but would at most be binding in the ecclesial jurisdictions of the East.
How accurate is this definition?
Originally it was only a council of the Orient; the arguments of Baronius (ad an. 381, nos. 19, 20) to prove that it was called by Pope Damasus are invalid (Hefele-Leclercq, Hist. des Conciles, Paris, 1908, II, 4). It was attended by 150 Catholic and 36 heretical (Semi-Arian, Macedonian) bishops, and was presided over by Meletius of Antioch; after his death, by the successive Patriarchs of Constantinople, St. Gregory Nazianzen and Nectarius.
In 379 Meletius held a council of 150 bishops in order to assure the triumph of orthodoxy in the East, and published a profession of faith which was to meet the approval of the Council of Constantinople (382). The end of the schism was near at hand. Since the two factions which divided the Antiochene Church were orthodox there remained but to unite them actually, a difficult move, but easy when the death of either bishop made it possible for the survivor to exercise full authority without hurting pride or discipline. This solution Meletius recognized as early as 381, but his friendly and peace- making proposals were rejected by Paulinus who refused to come to any agreement or settlement. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10161b.htm
So, papal legates running a council that is presided by a holy Bishop not even in communion with Rome? Don't think so.
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The "suffering servant" passage is often quoted in a Christian context as passage foretelling the coming of the Messiah. This workshop approaches the passage in its own context and on its own terms, not from the meaning later assigned to it by Christian theologians. If you are familiar with this passage, recall your first encounter with it. What meaning was ascribed to it? How did it make you feel?
Find the experiences of "exile" and "restoration" in your own life, or in the literature, film, or music of popular culture. After you have explored the emotional territory of exile and restoration, read the passage from Isaiah (the story in this workshop) aloud, paying attention to the emotions and images it evokes in you.
Reflect on how you responded (or might have responded) to this passage as an eight-year-old child, a fourteen-year-old youth, or a young adult making your way in the world. Envision the way you will think about this passage when you are an elder, looking back on your life.
Bring each person in your group into your mind and hold them in appreciative thought and/or prayer.
For more information contact [email protected].
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Benedict of Nursia
|Saint Benedict of Norcia|
Saint Benedict Detail from a fresco by Fra Angelico
Patron of Europe
Norcia (Umbria, Italy)
|Died||22 March 542
|Venerated in||Roman Catholicism
|Canonized||1220, Romeh by Pope Honorius III|
|Feast||11 July (General Roman Calendar), (Anglican Communion)
14 March (Byzantine Rite)
21 March (pre-1970 General Roman Calendar)
-Broken cup and serpent representing poison
-Man in a Benedictine cowl holding Benedict's rule or a rod of discipline
-Heraldry and Officers of arms
-the Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest
-People in religious orders
-Servants who have broken their master's belongings
Benedict of Norcia (Italian: San Benedetto da Norcia) (c. 480 – 543 or 547) is a Christian saint, honoured by the Catholic Church and the Anglican Church as the patron saint of Europe and students.
Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco, Italy (about 40 miles (64 km) to the east of Rome), before moving to Monte Cassino in the mountains of southern Italy. The Catholic Order of St Benedict and the Anglican Order of St Benedict are of later origin and, moreover, not an "order" as commonly understood but merely a confederation of autonomous congregations.
Benedict's main achievement is his "Rule of Saint Benedict", containing precepts for his monks. It is heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian, and shows strong affinity with the Rule of the Master. But it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness (ἐπιείκεια, epieikeia), and this persuaded most religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, his Rule became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason, Benedict is often called the founder of western monasticism.
A short poem attributed to Mark of Monte Cassino, the only ancient account of Benedict is found in the second volume of Pope Gregory I's four-book Dialogues, is thought to have been written in 593. The authenticity of this work has been hotly disputed, especially by Dr. Francis Clarke in his two volume work The Pseudo-Gregorian Dialogues. Book Two consists of a prologue and thirty-eight succinct chapters.
Gregory’s account of this saint’s life is not, however, a biography in the modern sense of the word. It provides instead a spiritual portrait of the gentle, disciplined abbot. In a letter to Bishop Maximilian of Syracuse, Gregory states his intention for his Dialogues, saying they are a kind of floretum (an anthology, literally, 'flowers') of the most striking miracles of Italian holy men.
Gregory did not set out to write a chronological, historically anchored story of St. Benedict, but he did base his anecdotes on direct testimony. To establish his authority, Gregory explains that his information came from what he considered the best sources: a handful of Benedict’s disciples who lived with the saint and witnessed his various miracles. These followers, he says, are Constantinus, who succeeded Benedict as Abbot of Monte Cassino; Valentinianus; Simplicius; and Honoratus, who was abbot of Subiaco when St Gregory wrote his Dialogues.
In Gregory's day, history was not recognised as an independent field of study; it was a branch of grammar or rhetoric, and historia (defined as 'story') summed up the approach of the learned when they wrote what was, at that time, considered 'history.' Gregory’s Dialogues Book Two, then, an authentic medieval hagiography cast as a conversation between the Pope and his deacon Peter, is designed to teach spiritual lessons.
He was the son of a Roman noble of Nursia, the modern Norcia, in Umbria. A tradition which Bede accepts makes him a twin with his sister Scholastica. If we accept the date 480 for his birth, we may fix the date of his abandonment of his studies and leaving home at about 500. St Gregory's narrative makes it impossible to suppose him younger than 19 or 20 at the time. He was old enough to be in the midst of his literary studies, to understand the real meaning and worth of the dissolute and licentious lives of his companions, and to have been deeply affected himself by the love of a woman. He was at the beginning of life, and he had at his disposal the means to a career as a Roman noble; clearly he was not a child.
Benedict doesn't seem to have left Rome for the purpose of becoming a hermit, but only to find some place away from the life of the great city. He took his old nurse with him as a servant and they settled down to live in Enfide. Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern Affile, is in the Simbruini mountains, about forty miles from Rome and two from Subiaco.
A short distance from Enfide is the entrance to a narrow, gloomy valley, penetrating the mountains and leading directly to Subiaco. The path continues to ascend, and the side of the ravine, on which it runs, becomes steeper, until a cave is reached above which the mountain now rises almost perpendicularly; while on the right, it strikes in a rapid descent down to where, in St Benedict's day, 500 feet (150 m) below, lay the blue waters of the lake. The cave has a large triangular-shaped opening and is about ten feet deep. On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, Romanus of Subiaco, whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave. Romanus had discussed with Benedict the purpose which had brought him to Subiaco, and had given him the monk's habit. By his advice Benedict became a hermit and for three years, unknown to men, lived in this cave above the lake.
St Gregory tells us little of these years. He now speaks of Benedict no longer as a youth (puer), but as a man (vir) of God. Romanus, he twice tells us, served the saint in every way he could. The monk apparently visited him frequently, and on fixed days brought him meals.
During these three years of solitude, broken only by occasional communications with the outer world and by the visits of Romanus, Benedict matured both in mind and character, in knowledge of himself and of his fellow-man, and at the same time he became not merely known to, but secured the respect of, those about him; so much so that on the death of the abbot of a monastery in the neighbourhood (identified by some with Vicovaro), the community came to him and begged him to become its abbot. Benedict was acquainted with the life and discipline of the monastery, and knew that "their manners were diverse from his and therefore that they would never agree together: yet, at length, overcome with their entreaty, he gave his consent" (ibid., 3). The experiment failed; the monks tried to poison him. The legend goes that they first tried to poison his drink. He prayed a blessing over the cup and the cup shattered. Then they tried to poison him with poisoned bread. When he prayed a blessing over the bread, a raven swept in and took the loaf away. Benedict returned to his cave at Subiaco. From this time his miracles seem to have become frequent, and many people, attracted by his sanctity and character, came to Subiaco to be under his guidance. He founded 12 monasteries in the vicinity of Subiaco, and, eventually, founded the great Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, which lies on a hilltop between Rome and Naples.
He died at Monte Cassino not long after his sister, Saint Scholastica. Benedict died of a high fever on the day God had told him he was to die, and was buried in the same place as his sister. According to tradition, this occurred on 21 March 543 or 547. He was named patron protector of Europe by Pope Paul VI in 1964. In 1980, Pope John Paul II declared him co-patron of Europe, together with Saints Cyril and Methodius.
In the pre-1970 General Roman Calendar, his feast is kept on 21 March, the day of his death according to some manuscripts of the Martyrologium Hieronymianum and that of Bede. Because on that date his liturgical memorial would always be impeded by the observance of Lent, the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar moved his memorial to 11 July, the date that appears in some Gallic liturgical books of the end of the 8th century as the feast commemorating his death (Natalis S. Benedicti). There is some uncertainty about the origin of this feast. Accordingly, on 21 March the Roman Martyrology mentions in a line and a half that it is Benedict's day of death and that his memorial is celebrated on 11 July, while on 11 July it devotes seven lines to speaking of him, and mentions the tradition that he died on 21 March.
Rule of St. Benedict
Seventy-three short chapters comprise the Rule. Its wisdom is of two kinds: spiritual (how to live a Christocentric life on earth) and administrative (how to run a monastery efficiently). More than half the chapters describe how to be obedient and humble, and what to do when a member of the community is not. About one-fourth regulate the work of God (the Opus Dei). One-tenth outline how, and by whom, the monastery should be managed. And two chapters specifically describe the abbot’s pastoral duties.
The Saint Benedict Medal
This medal originally came from a cross in honour of St Benedict. On one side, the medal has an image of St Benedict, holding the Holy Rule in his left hand and a cross in his right. There is a raven on one side of him, with a cup on the other side of him. Around the medal's outer margin are the words "Eius in obitu nostro praesentia muniamur" ("May we, at our death, be fortified by His presence"). The other side of the medal has a cross with the initials CSSML on the vertical bar which signify "Crux Sacra Sit Mihi Lux" ("May the Holy Cross be my light") and on the horizontal bar are the initials NDSMD which stand for "Non Draco Sit Mihi Dux" ("Let not the dragon be my overlord"). The initials CSPB stand for "Crux Sancti Patris Benedicti" ("The Cross of the Holy Father Benedict") and are located on the interior angles of the cross. Either the inscription "PAX" (Peace) or the Christogram "IHS" may be found at the top of the cross in most cases. Around the medal's margin on this side are the Vade Retro Satana initials VRSNSMV which stand for "Vade Retro Satana, Nonquam Suade Mihi Vana" ("Begone Satan, do not suggest to me thy vanities") then a space followed by the initials SMQLIVB which signify "Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas" ("Evil are the things thou profferest, drink thou thy own poison").
This medal was first struck in 1880 to commemorate the fourteenth centenary of St Benedict's birth and is also called the Jubilee Medal; its exact origin, however, is unknown. In 1647, during a witchcraft trial at Natternberg near Metten Abbey in Bavaria, the accused women testified they had no power over Metten, which was under the protection of the cross. An investigation found a number of painted crosses on the walls of the abbey with the letters now found on St Benedict medals, but their meaning had been forgotten. A manuscript written in 1415 was eventually found that had a picture of Saint Benedict holding a scroll in one hand and a staff which ended in a cross in the other. On the scroll and staff were written the full words of the initials contained on the crosses. Medals then began to be struck in Germany, which then spread throughout Europe. This medal was first approved by Pope Benedict XIV in his briefs of 23 December 1741, and 12 March 1742.
Saint Benedict has been also the motive of many collector's coins around the world. The Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders', issued on 13 March 2002 is one of them.
The influence of St. Benedict
The early Middle Ages have been called "the Benedictine centuries." In April 2008, Pope Benedict XVI discussed the influence St Benedict had on Western Europe. The pope said that "with his life and work St Benedict exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture" and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the Roman empire.
St. Benedict contributed more than anyone else to the rise of monasticism in the West. His Rule was the foundational document for thousands of religious communities in the Middle Ages. To this day, The Rule of St. Benedict is the most common and influential Rule used by monasteries and monks, more than 1,400 years after its writing. Today the Benedictine family is represented by two branches: the Benedictine Federation and the Cistercians.
The influence of St Benedict produced "a true spiritual ferment" in Europe, and over the coming decades his followers spread across the continent to establish a new cultural unity based on Christian faith.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Benedict of Nursia.|
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Benedict of Nursia|
- Anthony the Great
- Benedictine Order
- San Beneto
- St. Benedict Medal
- Vade retro satana
- Barry, Patrick (1 July 1995). St. Benedict and Christianity in England. Gracewing Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 9780852443385. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
- Holder, Arthur G. (29 July 2009). Christian Spirituality: The Classics. Taylor & Francis. p. 70. ISBN 9780415776028. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
Today, tens of thousands of men and women throughout the world profess to live their lives according to Benedict's Rule. These men and women are associated with over two thousand Roman Catholic, Anglican, and ecumenical Benedictine monasteries on six continents.
- Ford, Hugh. "St. Benedict of Nursia." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 3 Mar. 2014
- Life and Miracles of St. Benedict (Book II, Dialogues), translated by Odo John Zimmerman, O.S.B. and Benedict R. Avery, O.S.B. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), p. iv.
- See Ildephonso Schuster, Saint Benedict and His Times, Gregory J. Roettger, trans. (London: B. Herder, 1951), p. 2.
- See Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis, editor, Historiography in the Middle Ages (Boston: Brill, 2003), pp. 1–2.
- "Saint Benedict, Abbot", Lives of Saints, John J. Crawley & Co., Inc.
- "St. Benedict of Nursia". Catholic Online. Retrieved 31 July 2008.
- "Egregiae Virtutis". Retrieved 26 April 2009. Apostolic letter of Pope John Paul II, 31 December 1980 (Latin)
- "Calendarium Romanum" (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), pp. 97 and 119
- Martyrologium Romanum 199 (edito altera 2004); pages 188 and 361 of the 2001 edition (Libreria Editrice Vaticana ISBN 978-88-209-7210-3)
- Orthodox Church in America: The Lives of the Saints, March 14th
- "The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, pp 60–62
- "Western Europe in the Middle Ages". Archived from the original on 2 June 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
- Benedict XVI, "Saint Benedict of Norcia" Homily given to a general audience at St Peter's Square on Wednesday, 9 April 2008 "?". Retrieved 4 August 2010.
- Stracke, Prof. J.R., "St. Benedict – Iconography", Augusta State University
- Foley O.F.M., Leonard, rev. McCloskey O.F.M., Pat, "Saint of the Day", American Catholic
- Gardner, Edmund G. (editor) (2010) . The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-94-7.
- "The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, ISBN 0-89555-512-3
Two sides of a Saint Benedict Medal
Portrait (1926) by Herman Nieg (1849–1928); Heiligenkreuz Abbey, Austria
Statue in Einsiedeln, Switzerland
- St. Benedict (pdf) from Fr. Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints
- A Benedictine Oblate Priest – The Rule in Parish Life
- Guide to Saint Benedict
- The Holy Rule of St. Benedict – Online translation by Rev. Boniface Verheyen, OSB, of St. Benedict's Abbey
- The Order of Saint Benedict
- The Medal Or Cross of St. Benedict: Its Origin, Meaning, and Privileges
- Life and Miracles of St Benedict
- "The Life of St. Benedict" from the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend
- St. Benedict Of Nursia, Patron Of Poison Sufferers, Monks, And Many More
- Saint Benedict of Nursia at the Christian Iconography web site.
- Works by or about Benedict of Nursia in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- "The Life of St. Benedict: Introduction". Retrieved 17 November 2008.
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Visual Timeline: Salamis
To navigate the timeline, click and drag it with your mouse, or click on the timeline overview on the bottom.
490 BCE: A combined force of Greek hoplites defeat the Persians at Marathon.
482 BCE: Themistocles persuades the Athenians to build a fleet, which saves them at Salamis and becomes their source of power.
480 BCE: Cycladic states contribute to the victorious Greek forces against the Persians at the battle of Salamis.
480 BCE: Battle of Thermopylae. 300 Spartans under King Leonidas and other Greek allies hold back the Persians led by Xerxes I for three days but are defeated.
480 BCE: The indecisive battle of Artemision between the Greek and Persian fleets of Xerxes I. The Greeks withdraw to Salamis.
480 BCE: Battle of Salamis where the Greek naval fleet defeats the invading armada of Xerxes I of Persia.
479 BCE: Xerxes' Persian forces are defeated by Greek forces at Plataea effectively ending Persia's imperial ambitions in Greece.
415 BCE: The Histories of Herodotus is published. The work is divided into nine chapters, each dedicated to one of the Muses.
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discussed in biography...Schelling, and made the acquaintance of many of the leading writers of the time, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. He became a first-rate scholar and published a little book of poems, Ghaselen (1821; “Ghazals”), in which he imitated the style of his friend Friedrich Rückert. This was soon followed by other volumes.
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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- n. Roman Catholic Church The pope.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- n. The Pope.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. the head of the Roman Catholic Church
Sorry, no etymologies found.
A hundred years later the Eastern Emperor Flavius Phocas Augustus, his own realm crumbling, elevated Boniface III, the patriarch of Rome, to a position of primacy over the other major bishops of the Christian world—those in Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople—and bestowed on him the title Vicar of Christ, or Pope.
O God, who didst fill the soul of Saint Pius X with a burning charity and called him to be the Vicar of Christ, grant that through his intercession we may follow in the footsteps of Jesus, Our Divine Master; and may our prayers to this saintly Pope be fruitful for life both here and hereafter, through the same Christ Our Lord.
The Humanitarians who followed the religious deception of the Antichrist and the tiny flock of the Catholic Church, led by the Vicar of Christ.
In the case of the Vicar of Christ, prayer is an appeal to his immediate superior.
Those who love the Vicar of Christ will keep praying daily for him, so that he "will not flee for fear of the wolves", so that he may persevere in the mission he set out to accomplish.
Obama getting an audience with the Vicar of Christ, who invited him to rethink his hellish beliefs on the "life issues".
At eight o'clock we assisted at his Mass, during which his fervent piety, worthy of the Vicar of Christ, gave evidence that he was in truth the "Holy Father."
In Catholicism, when the Bishop of Rome invokes his authority as Successor of Peter and Vicar of Christ, and speaks from the Chair of Peter, his pronouncement is binding on all Catholics throughout the world.
But some other times, the spiritual glory as the successor of Peter and Vicar of Christ.
If the offending heathen might lawfully be slaughtered at the command of the Jewish leader, it is impious to shrink from sacrifices like those on the altar of St. Bartholomew, when required by the Vicar of Christ.
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It is the number seven, not eight, that plays the principal rôle in Jewish heortology and dominates the cycle of the year. Every seventh day is a sabbath ; the seventh month is sacred; the seventh year is a sabbatical year. The jubilee year was brought about by the number seven multiplied by seven; the feast of the Azymes lasted seven days, like the paschal feast ; the feast of Pentecost was seven times seven days after the Pasch ; the feast of the Tabernacles lasted seven days, the days of convocation numbered seven (Willis, "Worship of the Old Covenant", 190-1; "Dict. of the Bible ", s.v. Feast and Fasts, I, 859). However, the octave day, without having the symbolic importance of the seventh day, had also its rôle. The eighth day was the day of circumcision ( Genesis 21:4 ; Leviticus 12:3 ; Luke 1:59 ; Acts 7:8 etc.). The feast of the Tabernacles, which as we have said lasted seven days, was followed on the eighth by a solemnity which may be considered as an octave ( Leviticus 23:36, 39 ; Numbers 29:35 ; Nehemiah 8:18 ); the eighth day was the day of certain sacrifices ( Leviticus 14:10, 23 ; 15:14, 29 ; Numbers 6:10 ). It was on the eighth day, too, that the feast of the dedication of the Temple under Solomon, and of its purifications under Ezechias concluded ( 2 Chronicles 7:9 ; 29:17 ). The ogdoad of the Egyptians and similar numerical phantasies among other peoples had no influence on Christian liturgy. Gavantí's opinion that the custom of celebrating the octave of feasts dates back to the days of the Apostles is devoid of proof (Thesaurus sacr. rit., 31 sq.). At first the Christian feasts have no octaves. Sunday, which may in a sense be considered the first Christian feast, falls on the seventh day; the feasts of Easter and Pentecost, which are, with Sunday the most ancient, form as it were only a single feast of fifty days. The feast of Christmas, which too is very old, had originally no octave.
In the fourth century, when the primitive idea of the fifty days' feast of the paschal time began to grow dim, Easter and Pentecost were given octaves. Possibly at first this was only a baptismal custom, the neophytes remaining in a kind of joyful retreat from Easter or Pentecost till the following Sunday. Moreover, the Sunday which, after the feasts of Easter and Pentecost, fell on the eighth day, came as a natural conclusion of the seven feast days after these two festivals. The octave, therefore, would have in a certain sense developed of its own accord. If this be so we may say, contrary to the common opinion that Christians borrowed the idea of the octave from the Jews this custom grew spontaneously on Christian soil. However, it must be said that the first Christian octave known to history is the dedication of the Churches of Tyre and Jerusalem, under Constantine, and that these solemnities, in imitation of the dedication of the Jewish Temple, lasted eight days ( Eusebius, "De vita Constant"., III, xxx sq.; Sozomen, "Hist. eccl.", II, xxvi). This feast may possibly have influenced the adoption of the octave by the Christians. From the fourth century onwards the celebration of octaves is mentioned more frequently. It occurs in the Apostolic Constitutions , the sermons of the Fathers, the Councils ("Const. Apost.", VIII, xxxiii; V, xx; Augustine, "De div. temp.", i; "Ep.", lv, 32, 33 etc.; "Peregrinatio Etheriæ", ed. Gamurrini, p. 100; cf. Cabrol, "Etude sur la Peregrinatio", Paris, 1895, pp. "Concil . Matisc. II", ii; "Concil. In Trullo", lvi.
The liturgy of the octave assumed its present form slowly. In the first period, that is from the fourth to the sixth and even seventh century, little thought seems to have been given to varying the liturgical formulæ during the eight days. The sacramentaries of Gelasius and St. Gregory make no mention of the intervening days; on the octave day the office of the feast is repeated. The dies octava is indeed made more prominent by the liturgy. The Sunday following Easter (i.e. Sunday in albis ) and the octave day of Christmas (now the Circumcision ) are treated very early as feast days by the liturgy. Certain octaves were considered as privileged days, on which work was forbidden. The courts and theatres were closed ("Cod. Theod.", XV, tit. v de spect. leg. 5; IX, de quæst. leg. 7; "Conc. Mog", 813, c. xxxvi). After Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas had received octaves, the tendency was to have an octave for all the solemn feasts. Etheria speaks of the feast of the Dedication (cf. Cabrol, op. cit., pp. 128-9). Theodomar, a contemporary of Charlemagne, speaks on!y of the octaves of Christmas and the Epiphany but it must not be concluded that he was ignorant of those of Easter and Pentecost, which were more celebrated.
The practice of having octaves for the feasts of the saints does not seem to be older than the eighth century, and even then it was peculiar to the Latins. From the ninth century it becomes more frequent. The capitularies of Charlemagne speak of the octaves of Christmas, the Epiphany, and Easter. Amalarius, after mentioning the four octaves of Christmas, the Epiphany, Easter, and Pentecost, tells us that it was customary in his time to celebrate the octaves of the feasts of Sts. Peter and Paul and other saints, "quorum festivitas apud nos clarior habetur . . . . et quorum consuetudo diversarum ecclesiarum octavas celebrat" (De eccl. offic., IV, xxxvi). In the thirteenth century this custom extends to many other feasts, under the influence of the Franciscans, who then exerted a preponderating influence on the formation of the modern Breviary (Bäumer-Biron, "Hist. du Breviaire", II, 31, 71, 199). The Franciscan feasts of Sts. Francis, Clare, Anthony of Padua , Bernadine etc., had their octaves. At the time of the reformation of the Breviary (Breviary of St. Pius V, 1568) the question of regulating the octaves was considered. Two kinds of octaves were distinguished, those of feasts of our Lord, and those of saints and the dedication. In the first category are further distinguished principal feasts -- those of Easter and Pentecost, which had specially privileged octaves, and those of Christmas, the Epiphany, and Corpus Christi, which were privileged (the Ascension octave was not privileged ). Octaves, which exclude all or practically all occurring; and transferred feasts, are called privileged. The octaves of saints were treated almost like that of the Ascension. This classification entailed the application of a certain number of rubrics, the details of which can be found in Bäumer-Biron, op. cit., II, 199-200. For the changes introduced under Leo XIII, cf. ibid., 462, and also the rubrics of the Breviary. Under OCTAVARIUM ROMANUM there is an account of Gavanti's attempt to provide a more varied offìce for the octaves.
The Greeks also to a certain extent admitted the celebration of octaves into their liturgy. However, we must be careful not to confuse, as is too often done the apodosis of the Greeks with the octave. Although having the same origin as the Latin octave, the apodosis differs from the octave in this, that it occurs sometimes on the eighth, and sometimes on the fifth, the fourth, or the ninth (see Pétridès in "Dict. d'archéol. et de liturgie chrét." s.v. Apodosis).
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A proverb is a short, traditional saying in general use. It usually expresses some obvious truth or familiar experience. Here are some proverbs that are well known in English, though some of them come from other languages. You can also see the meanings of these proverbs.
"The best things in life are free."
"A stitch in time saves nine."
"Still waters run deep."
"He teaches ill, who teaches all."
"You can't take it with you when you die."
"Better untaught than ill taught."
"Don't cross your bridges before you come to them."
"Soon learnt, soon forgotten."
"Even a worm will turn."
"It was the last straw that broke the camel's back."
"The way to a man's heart is through his stomach."
"If the stone fall upon the egg, alas for the egg! If the egg fall upon the stone, alas for the egg!"
"Where there's a will there's a way."
"Marry in haste, and repent at leisure."
"One tongue is enough for a woman."
"If you wish good advice, consult an old man."
"The best advice is found on the pillow."
"All clouds bring not rain."
"You can't tell a book by its cover."
"Bad news travels fast."
"No news is good news."
"Live and let live."
"Birds of a feather flock together."
"Tell me who you go with and I'll tell you who you are."
A bigger collection, with explanations and quizzes
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“There is nothing that man needs more than Divine Mercy,” Pope John Paul II told the world at the grave of Poland’s Saint Faustina Kowalska in a suburb of Cracow on June 7, 1997.
The pope had come to honor the nun he beatified in 1993, and whom Jesus had named as His “Apostle of Divine Mercy” to this troubled, bloody century. It was certainly not the first time that Karol Wojtyla had visited the convent where the largely unlettered Sister of Our Lady of Mercy died an agonizing death from tuberculosis at age thirty-three in 1938.
After he was named archbishop of Cracow in 1964, he opened the investigation of Sister Faustina’s life and virtues. But he had first heard about her during World War II. He was then a young seminarian studying in a clandestine seminary in Cracow. Poland was in agony, occupied by Nazi Germany.
Sister Faustina, gifted with the charism of prophecy along with many other gifts, had predicted Poland’s war-time crucifixion. Responding to the promptings and visions given secretly to her, she also recorded the “Chaplet of Divine Mercy” and the “Novena of Divine Mercy.”
Under the guidance of her confessor, Father Michael Sopocko, she directed the painting of the Image of Divine Mercy — Jesus with pale and red rays flowing from His chest, sending graces out to the world. And finally, the slender sister saw to it that a Feast of Divine Mercy was begun to commemorate Christ ’s redemptive love — and mercy — on the Sunday after Easter.
Immediately after her death, Poland was in need of the Divine Mercy message and devotion. “In those difficult years, it was a particular support and an inexhaustible source of hope, not only for the people of Cracow but for the entire nation,” Pope John Paul II admitted in June 1997. Poles stuffed the Divine Mercy prayers and pictures of Jesus into their pockets as they fled from their country, even when on their way to refugee camps. The devotions also spread very quickly to the United States. Father Joseph Jarzebowski, a Marian priest blacklisted by the Nazi SS, promised God that if he was able to escape from Poland and join members of his community in the United States, he would spread the Divine Mercy message. In May 1941 he arrived in Washington, D.C. With the help of Felician Sisters, a Polish order, he quickly began to print and distribute the Divine Mercy prayers and devotions, as did Father Sopocko in Poland.
From those roots, a flourishing and dynamic international Divine Mercy movement has sprung. The prayers have been translated into dozens of languages. There are Divine Mercy centers all over the world. Divine Mercy Sunday is celebrated as an official feast in Poland. On April 20, 2000, more than twenty thousand pilgrims attended the Divine Mercy Sunday celebration at the National Shrine of the Divine Mercy on Eden Hill, Stockbridge, Massachusetts. On the same feast day, Faustina became a saint in Rome. The shrine and international distribution center for Divine Mercy materials is administered from Eden Hill by the Marians of the Immaculate Conception.
And the diary of Saint Faustina — four hundred seventy-seven pages of neat, tight script — has been translated and distributed throughout the world. It has since become a sort of handbook for the growing Divine Mercy movement. Sister Faustina began to write the diary in her Vilnius convent cell in the summer of 1934. Jesus and her confessor, Father Michael Sopocko, had ordered her to do it.
Having completed barely three semesters of schooling as a child in Poland, writing anything — except a few letters home — was an intimidating prospect. Nonetheless, Sister Faustina obediently complied and found a scratchy pen and a student theme book in a convent cupboard. Like the saints Catherine of Siena, Teresa of Ávila, and — most of all — Thérèse of Lisieux, who had been canonized in 1925, the year Sister Faustina entered the convent, this Polish sister inadvertently created a spiritual classic.
The diary of Sister Faustina is rich in mystical allusions and solid theological truths. It details the awesome journey of a soul striving to be and do whatever God wanted. Despite the austere religious conditions of her convent life and the traditions of a Polish spirituality unfamiliar to many of us today, her story speaks out.
The themes of persistence in the face of adversity, “active submission,” fundamental trust in the Lord, faithfulness to the end, discernment, an ability to change the things that were changeable and the ability to be at peace with the unchangeable. Her diary presents all these things and more. It is a letter from one soul to another. And it is an account of her discovery of God’s love. In the first notebook of her diary, she inscribed a title: Divine Mercy in My Soul.
Many years after the diary was written, Polish Cardinal Andrew Deskur, a theologian and a close friend of Pope John Paul II, wrote an introduction to the diary’s official Polish edition. The work, he said, “is Catholic mysticism of exceptional worth . . . for the whole Church.”
During her lifetime in half a dozen convents across Poland, this pretty young nun with freckles and gray-green eyes could not have been identified as a mystic capable of articulating dogmas and beautiful theological ideas. She was the convent gardener. She worked in the kitchen, the bakery, and the laundry. And yet, in recent years, the Congregation acknowledged her as its spiritual co-founder. She deepened her order’s spirituality, showing new ways to fulfill its charism of cooperating with Divine Mercy to help rescue lost souls.
Her real mission, of course, had nothing to do with stirring soup or folding laundry — though she learned to do these, as the Little Flower of Lisieux had done them — in the spirit of absolute obedience and generosity for Jesus. Her real mission was hidden from almost everyone around her. It had to do with announcing God’s mercy to a world increasingly steeped in sin and selfishness. “It is My will,” Jesus told her, “that you should write. You do not live for yourself, but for others’ souls. Write so that they might learn to love Me. Write of My mercy.”
By the middle of 1936, the superiors of Sister Faustina’s order understood that she was dying. A vicious and painful case of multiple tuberculosis was choking the young life out of her. Sister Faustina had known all along that she would not live long. In fact, she knew — and predicted — the exact date of her death. It was October 5, 1938.
During her final sickbed struggle in Cracow in 1937 and ’38, Sister Faustina united her pain and suffering with those of Jesus, scourged and crucified. She prayed in particular for the dying, for priests and religious, and for her beloved homeland, Poland. She relived the torments of Christ’s last hours many times, and she experienced the Lord’s stigmata, though it was never visible.
Who could have predicted that a simple country girl would flower so exquisitely? Born to a poor, devout carpenter and his illiterate wife, Sister Faustina Kowalska (named Helena by her parents) was the third child in a family that eventually had eight mouths to feed. Her siblings loved her deeply, but they never imitated her astounding generosity, obedience, and piety.
Perhaps by the end of their own lives, her brothers and sisters understood more about the “Apostle of Divine Mercy” — their own Helena — whom Jesus had given to the troubled twentieth century. At the end of 1997, her eighty-two-year-old brother Mecislaus was still living near the family homestead in Glogowiec. He was the last of the Kowalski children alive. His older sister Natalia had died at age eighty-eight on January 24, 1997, after having spent her last months with the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy at their convent in Biala, near Plock. It was at Plock that Sister Faustina first saw the image of the Divine Mercy of Jesus.
“I feel certain that my mission will not come to an end upon my death, but will begin,” she wrote with her scratchy pen late one night at her desk upstairs in Vilnius. Her earthly end, in so many ways, was really a beginning.
Excerpt from Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy by Catherine M. Odell, OSV (out-of-print)
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Psalm 107 (Greek numbering: 106) is a psalm in the biblical book of Psalms. Written by King David, this psalm is a song of thanksgiving to God, who has been merciful to his people and gathered all who were lost. It is beloved of mariners due to its reference to ships and the sea (v. 23).
Psalm 107 is divided into forty-three verses and is one of the longer psalms in the Bible. In the Revised Standard Version (RSV), it is split into seven sections, each section having a related but distinct theme. The first section, the shortest, comprises verses one to three; the second, verses four to nine; the third, verses ten to sixteen; the fourth, verses seventeen to twenty-two; the fifth, verses twenty-three to thirty-two; the sixth, verses thirty-three to thirty-eight; and the seventh and final, verses thirty-nine to forty-three. An interesting feature of Psalm 107 commonly found in the poetic books of the Bible is its overall regularity. The line lengths are different, but the size of the original sectional divisions is pleasingly even. The theme of the psalm moves forward from section to section.
Overall, psalm 107 is considered one of Israel’s historical psalms, along with Psalm 106 and many of the royal psalms, among others. The overall outline of the historical psalms is to tell a story of a God who accomplishes “wonderful works” (v. 8), although the Israelites, His chosen people, have proved faithless. In fact, acts of infidelity often seem to correspond to an eventual awe-inspiring work of mercy from the Lord. Although the exact timing of the writing of psalm 107 is unsure, it was most likely written during a time of increased union among the Jewish people during the reign of King David (1010-970 BC). The psalm also includes several more specific themes which emphasize the general tone of praise and thanksgiving for the God of Israel.
In the introduction, the first section of psalm 107, the Lord is said to gather “the redeemed ... from the east and from the west, from the north and from the south” (v. 2, 3). Following this, the next four sections address individuals who “wandered in desert wastes,” “sat in darkness and gloom,” “were sick through their sinful ways,” and “went down to the sea in ships” (v. 4, 10, 17, 23). Each of these locational descriptors corresponds to a cardinal direction as mentioned in the third verse of the psalm. The desert wastes mentioned in the second section of the psalm seem to indicate a “great, eastern desert” that might be beat down upon by the sun, which rises in the east. Likewise, in the opposing, western direction, where the sun sets, the Israelites are said to sit “in darkness and gloom” (v. 10). The correlation depicted in this section between darkness and helplessness - apart from the aid of the Lord - harkens back to Old Testament descriptions of Abraham (Gen. 15:12). Throughout early Hebrew history, north was thought to be the direction most associated with evil and iniquity, thus adding emphasis to the direction of north’s correspondence to the fourth stanza, beginning with “some were sick through their sinful ways, and because of their iniquities suffered affliction” (v. 17). And finally, in the orientation of the region that Israel occupied at the time of Psalm 107, to the south lay the sea, directly paralleling the beginning of the fifth section, “some went down to the sea in ships” (v. 23).
Psalm 107 is, above all, a hymn commemorating the power of God. Despite the transgressions of the Israelites, the Lord forgives them. The psalm elaborates on this theme, going on to say that the Lord “turns a desert into pools of water … and there he lets the hungry dwell” (v. 35, 36). This description of miracles as performed by the Lord reinforces the imagery of “wonderful works” mentioned earlier in the psalm (v. 8). The works of the Lord, however, are mentioned in many psalms; what makes psalm 107 somewhat unique is its depiction of the works of the Lord as explication for the people. The psalm is a hymn of thanksgiving to the Lord “for the purpose of making [the Lord’s works] known to humankind, so that they too can join in the praise of [the Lord].” This concept seems to indicate that David has written a sort of circulatory hymn thanking the Lord for enabling the Israelites to thank the Lord. These concordant themes of enlightenment and gratitude reinforce each other throughout the psalm, and, indeed, throughout the rest of the fifth book of psalms, of which psalm 107 is the opening hymn.
Relevance in the New Testament
As with much of the Old Testament, many Christians understand Psalm 107 to foreshadow an event recorded in the New Testament. A famous story of the life of Christ from chapter four of the gospel of Mark follows the fifth section of psalm 107, which describes the plight and eventual rescue of those on the sea. In the story of Jesus, while he and his disciples are on Lake Galilee in a boat, a storm swells. Jesus calms the storm by saying, “Peace! Be still!” (Mk. 4:39). In the same way, psalm 107 describes the Israelites at sea when a storm arises. The waves “mounted up to heaven, they went down to the depths,” (v. 26) and the Lord then “makes still” (v. 29) the storm. The language of both passages is similar, supporting the mirrored imagery and situation that the stories share. The divine being who calms the storm is also the same according to the Christian tradition: the Lord, whether Father, Son, or Holy Spirit, is one being.
Significance in Tradition
Although Psalm 107 does not have any particular importance or fame in any religious tradition, apart from the clear historical significance it has to the Jewish culture, it is retained within the Roman Catholic faith as a part of the Mass. In the Roman Catholic Mass, selections of psalm 107 are read on various occasions throughout the year, with the most common occurrence being during the hymn between the first and second readings. It is often quoted at events involving the navy and seafarers, such as the launching of ships.
- Zenger, Erich (1998). "The Composition and Theology of the Fifth Book of Psalms, Psalms 107-145". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament (80): 77–102.
- OConnor, M. (1980). Hebrew Verse Structure. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
- Jacobson, Rolf A. (2011). Soundings in the Theology of Psalms. Minneapolis: Fortress. pp. 111–137.
- Schoenberg, Shira. "David". Jewish Virtual Library. The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.
- Ballard, Jr., H. Wayne (2002). "The Psalms of the Return Book V, Psalms 107-150". Review of Biblical Literature (4): 231–232.
- Jarick, John (1997). "The Four Corners of Psalm 107". Catholic Biblical Quarterly 59 (2): 270–288.
- Fleer, David (2006). Preaching Mark's Unsettling Messiah. St. Louis: Chalice. pp. 121–128.
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The prophet Mormon was an amazing human being and a man among men. Mormon was a child prodigy, a skilled military commander, a great historian, a powerful prophet and a loving father and son.
Mormon had no guile and he consistently showed tenderness and compassion for his fellow men.
Mormon and a minority of those faithful to the gospel of Jesus Christ were surrounded all their days by "wickedness and abominations," but in Mormon's writings, he has an eternal perspective which made him cheerful, buoyant and optimistic in the gospel.
Joseph Smith and Mormon had little if any interaction in this life (see Journal of Discourses, 17:374 for reference to possible interaction).
These two great men, Joseph Smith and Mormon, both had a hand in advancing the work of bringing forth the Book of Mormon.
One of the many things Joseph Smith did as a leader of early The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was the translation and publication of The Book of Mormon. And Mormon worked to compile and edit it.
The Lord knows the greatness of his people. His knowledge of Mormon led him to select and call on Mormon among all other men to edit the book that Joseph Smith translated (for the call see 3 Nephi 5:14-16; Words of Mormon 1:9,11; Mormon 3:17-22; Mormon 5:9, 12-15; first paragraph of The Book of Mormon title page).
Make no mistake, however. The command to compile the Book of Mormon made staggering demands on the devoted Mormon. The Nephites held a massive number of records including the large plates and small plates of the Nephites and voluminous other records (see Helaman 3:13-16). The records were so extensive that four times Mormon felt compelled to declare that he could not write "the hundredth part of the things of my people" (see Words of Mormon 1:5; Helaman 3:14; 3 Nephi 5:8; 3 Nephi 26:6).
When you think about it, Mormon was faced with the including the doctrines of the gospel in that hundredth part of history of Nephite affairs (1 Nephi 15:13).
Readers can get a sense of what Mormon had to cope with in selecting material for this book by a few of his comments:
1. "(T)here had many things that have transpired which in the eyes of some, would be great and marvelous; nevertheless, they cannot all be written in this book" (see 3 Nephi 5:9).
2. Mormon used only four verses to record an extensive history of the Lord's people beginning with the Creation and the Fall by Ammon, probably the the greatest Nephite missionary ever. Ammon included "the plan of redemption and "all the works of the Lord."
Mormon did not report verbatim or in outline even apart of Ammon's teachings (Alma 18:36-39).
3. Nephi, grandson of Helaman, had faith so great that "angels did minister unto him daily." "And he did minister many things unto (the Nephites); and all of them cannot be written, and a part of them would not suffice, therefore they we not written in this book. And Nephi did minister with power and with great authority" (3 Nephi 7:17).
Mormon also had to decide which Nephite historical episodes would best illustrate man's proper relationship with God so that these episodes might be included in The Book of Mormon.
The Book of Mormon is a dazzling spiritual treasure because its editor was a divinely inspired spiritual giant.
Mormon is amazing because of his production of The Book of Mormon. It was the consecrated and successful labor of his life.
To know these and other parts of Mormon's life helps me to feel a greater love, appreciation and understanding for the wonderful Book of Mormon.
Keith Schofield is the author of "Mormon: Divine Genius of the Book of Mormon."
Copyright 2015, Deseret News Publishing Company
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- English Standard Version
- King James Version
1After this Jesus went away to the other side of the Sea of Galilee, which is the Sea of Tiberias. 2And a large crowd was following him, because they saw the signs that he was doing on the sick. 3Jesus went up on the mountain, and there he sat down with his disciples. 4Now the Passover, the feast of the Jews, was at hand. 5Lifting up his eyes, then, and seeing that a large crowd was coming toward him, Jesus said to Philip, Where are we to buy bread, so that these people may eat? 6He said this to test him, for he himself knew what he would do. 7Philip answered him, Two hundred denarii worth of bread would not be enough for each of them to get a little. 8One of his disciples, Andrew, Simon Peter's brother, said to him, 9There is a boy here who has five barley loaves and two fish, but what are they for so many? 10Jesus said, Have the people sit down. Now there was much grass in the place. So the men sat down, about five thousand in number. 11Jesus then took the loaves, and when he had given thanks, he distributed them to those who were seated. So also the fish, as much as they wanted. 12And when they had eaten their fill, he told his disciples, Gather up the leftover fragments, that nothing may be lost. 13So they gathered them up and filled twelve baskets with fragments from the five barley loaves left by those who had eaten. 14When the people saw the sign that he had done, they said, This is indeed the Prophet who is to come into the world! 15Perceiving then that they were about to come and take him by force to make him king, Jesus withdrew again to the mountain by himself. 16When evening came, his disciples went down to the sea, 17got into a boat, and started across the sea to Capernaum. It was now dark, and Jesus had not yet come to them. 18The sea became rough because a strong wind was blowing. 19When they had rowed about three or four miles, they saw Jesus walking on the sea and coming near the boat, and they were frightened. 20But he said to them, It is I; do not be afraid. 21Then they were glad to take him into the boat, and immediately the boat was at the land to which they were going. 22On the next day the crowd that remained on the other side of the sea saw that there had been only one boat there, and that Jesus had not entered the boat with his disciples, but that his disciples had gone away alone. 23Other boats from Tiberias came near the place where they had eaten the bread after the Lord had given thanks. 24So when the crowd saw that Jesus was not there, nor his disciples, they themselves got into the boats and went to Capernaum, seeking Jesus. 25When they found him on the other side of the sea, they said to him, Rabbi, when did you come here? 26Jesus answered them, Truly, truly, I say to you, you are seeking me, not because you saw signs, but because you ate your fill of the loaves. 27 28Then they said to him, What must we do, to be doing the works of God? 29Jesus answered them, This is the work of God, that you believe in him whom he has sent. 30So they said to him, Then what sign do you do, that we may see and believe you? What work do you perform? 31Our fathers ate the manna in the wilderness; as it is written, He gave them bread from heaven to eat. 32Jesus then said to them, Truly, truly, I say to you, it was not Moses who gave you the bread from heaven, but my Father gives you the true bread from heaven. 33 34They said to him, Sir, give us this bread always. 35Jesus said to them, I am the bread of life; whoever comes to me shall not hunger, and whoever believes in me shall never thirst. 36 37 38 39 40 41So the Jews grumbled about him, because he said, I am the bread that came down from heaven. 42They said, Is not this Jesus, the son of Joseph, whose father and mother we know? How does he now say, I have come down from heaven? 43Jesus answered them, Do not grumble among yourselves. 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52The Jews then disputed among themselves, saying, How can this man give us his flesh to eat? 53So Jesus said to them, Truly, truly, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you. 54 55 56 57 58 59Jesus said these things in the synagogue, as he taught at Capernaum. 60When many of his disciples heard it, they said, This is a hard saying; who can listen to it? 61But Jesus, knowing in himself that his disciples were grumbling about this, said to them, Do you take offense at this? 62 63 64 65And he said, This is why I told you that no one can come to me unless it is granted him by the Father. 66After this many of his disciples turned back and no longer walked with him. 67So Jesus said to the Twelve, Do you want to go away as well? 68Simon Peter answered him, Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life, 69and we have believed, and have come to know, that you are the Holy One of God. 70Jesus answered them, Did I not choose you, the Twelve? And yet one of you is a devil. 71He spoke of Judas the son of Simon Iscariot, for he, one of the Twelve, was going to betray him.
1After these things Jesus went over the sea of Galilee, which is the sea of Tiberias. 2And a great multitude followed him, because they saw his miracles which he did on them that were diseased. 3And Jesus went up into a mountain, and there he sat with his disciples. 4And the passover, a feast of the Jews, was nigh. 5When Jesus then lifted up his eyes, and saw a great company come unto him, he saith unto Philip, Whence shall we buy bread, that these may eat? 6And this he said to prove him: for he himself knew what he would do. 7Philip answered him, Two hundred pennyworth of bread is not sufficient for them, that every one of them may take a little. 8One of his disciples, Andrew, Simon Peter's brother, saith unto him, 9There is a lad here, which hath five barley loaves, and two small fishes: but what are they among so many? 10And Jesus said, Make the men sit down. Now there was much grass in the place. So the men sat down, in number about five thousand. 11And Jesus took the loaves; and when he had given thanks, he distributed to the disciples, and the disciples to them that were set down; and likewise of the fishes as much as they would. 12When they were filled, he said unto his disciples, Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost. 13Therefore they gathered them together, and filled twelve baskets with the fragments of the five barley loaves, which remained over and above unto them that had eaten. 14Then those men, when they had seen the miracle that Jesus did, said, This is of a truth that prophet that should come into the world. 15When Jesus therefore perceived that they would come and take him by force, to make him a king, he departed again into a mountain himself alone. 16And when even was now come, his disciples went down unto the sea, 17And entered into a ship, and went over the sea toward Capernaum. And it was now dark, and Jesus was not come to them. 18And the sea arose by reason of a great wind that blew. 19So when they had rowed about five and twenty or thirty furlongs, they see Jesus walking on the sea, and drawing nigh unto the ship: and they were afraid. 20But he saith unto them, It is I; be not afraid. 21Then they willingly received him into the ship: and immediately the ship was at the land whither they went. 22The day following, when the people which stood on the other side of the sea saw that there was none other boat there, save that one whereinto his disciples were entered, and that Jesus went not with his disciples into the boat, but that his disciples were gone away alone; 23(Howbeit there came other boats from Tiberias nigh unto the place where they did eat bread, after that the Lord had given thanks:) 24When the people therefore saw that Jesus was not there, neither his disciples, they also took shipping, and came to Capernaum, seeking for Jesus. 25And when they had found him on the other side of the sea, they said unto him, Rabbi, when camest thou hither? 26Jesus answered them and said, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Ye seek me, not because ye saw the miracles, but because ye did eat of the loaves, and were filled. 27Labour not for the meat which perisheth, but for that meat which endureth unto everlasting life, which the Son of man shall give unto you: for him hath God the Father sealed. 28Then said they unto him, What shall we do, that we might work the works of God? 29Jesus answered and said unto them, This is the work of God, that ye believe on him whom he hath sent. 30They said therefore unto him, What sign shewest thou then, that we may see, and believe thee? what dost thou work? 31Our fathers did eat manna in the desert; as it is written, He gave them bread from heaven to eat. 32Then Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Moses gave you not that bread from heaven; but my Father giveth you the true bread from heaven. 33For the bread of God is he which cometh down from heaven, and giveth life unto the world. 34Then said they unto him, Lord, evermore give us this bread. 35And Jesus said unto them, I am the bread of life: he that cometh to me shall never hunger; and he that believeth on me shall never thirst. 36But I said unto you, That ye also have seen me, and believe not. 37All that the Father giveth me shall come to me; and him that cometh to me I will in no wise cast out. 38For I came down from heaven, not to do mine own will, but the will of him that sent me. 39And this is the Father's will which hath sent me, that of all which he hath given me I should lose nothing, but should raise it up again at the last day. 40And this is the will of him that sent me, that every one which seeth the Son, and believeth on him, may have everlasting life: and I will raise him up at the last day. 41The Jews then murmured at him, because he said, I am the bread which came down from heaven. 42And they said, Is not this Jesus, the son of Joseph, whose father and mother we know? how is it then that he saith, I came down from heaven? 43Jesus therefore answered and said unto them, Murmur not among yourselves. 44No man can come to me, except the Father which hath sent me draw him: and I will raise him up at the last day. 45It is written in the prophets, And they shall be all taught of God. Every man therefore that hath heard, and hath learned of the Father, cometh unto me. 46Not that any man hath seen the Father, save he which is of God, he hath seen the Father. 47Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that believeth on me hath everlasting life. 48I am that bread of life. 49Your fathers did eat manna in the wilderness, and are dead. 50This is the bread which cometh down from heaven, that a man may eat thereof, and not die. 51I am the living bread which came down from heaven: if any man eat of this bread, he shall live for ever: and the bread that I will give is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world. 52The Jews therefore strove among themselves, saying, How can this man give us his flesh to eat? 53Then Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. 54Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life; and I will raise him up at the last day. 55For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed. 56He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, dwelleth in me, and I in him. 57As the living Father hath sent me, and I live by the Father: so he that eateth me, even he shall live by me. 58This is that bread which came down from heaven: not as your fathers did eat manna, and are dead: he that eateth of this bread shall live for ever. 59These things said he in the synagogue, as he taught in Capernaum. 60Many therefore of his disciples, when they had heard this, said, This is an hard saying; who can hear it? 61When Jesus knew in himself that his disciples murmured at it, he said unto them, Doth this offend you? 62What and if ye shall see the Son of man ascend up where he was before? 63It is the spirit that quickeneth; the flesh profiteth nothing: the words that I speak unto you, they are spirit, and they are life. 64But there are some of you that believe not. For Jesus knew from the beginning who they were that believed not, and who should betray him. 65And he said, Therefore said I unto you, that no man can come unto me, except it were given unto him of my Father. 66From that time many of his disciples went back, and walked no more with him. 67Then said Jesus unto the twelve, Will ye also go away? 68Then Simon Peter answered him, Lord, to whom shall we go? thou hast the words of eternal life. 69And we believe and are sure that thou art that Christ, the Son of the living God. 70Jesus answered them, Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil? 71He spake of Judas Iscariot the son of Simon: for he it was that should betray him, being one of the twelve.
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Fifth Earl of Nithsdale (Lord Nithsdale signed as Nithsdaill) and fourteenth Lord Maxwell, b. in 1676; d. at Rome, 2 March, 1744. He succeeded his father at the early age of seven. His mother, a daughter of the House of Douglas, a clever energetic woman, educated him in sentiments of devotion to the Catholic faith and of loyalty to the House of Stuart, for which his family was famous. When he was about twenty-three, Lord Nithsdale visited the French Court to do homage to King James, and there met and wooed Lady Winifred Herbert, youngest daughter of William, first Marquis of Powis. The marriage contract is dated 2 March, 1699. The young couple resided chiefly at Terregles, in Dumfriesshire, and here probably their five children were born. Until 1715 no special event marked their lives, but in that year Lord Nithsdale's principles led him to join the rising in favour of Prince James Stuart, and he shared in the disasters which attended the royal cause, being taken prisoner at Preston and sent to the Tower. In deep anxiety Lady Nithsdale hastened to London and there made every effort on behalf of her husband, including a personal appeal to George I, but no sort of hope was held out to her. She, therefore, with true heroism, planned and carried out his escape on the eve of the day fixed for his execution. Lord Nithsdale had prepared himself for death like a good Catholic and loyal servant of his king, as his "Dying Speech" and farewell letter to his family attest. After his escape he fled in disguise to France. He and Lady Nithsdale spent their last years in great poverty, in Rome, in attendance on their exiled king.
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REPORTER AT LARGE about Pope John Paul II and the Vatican's silence over their role in the Holocaust. The article discusses how the doctrine of papal infallibility affects the Catholic Church's reconciliation with its complicitous role in the Holocaust and also how Karol Wojtyla (Pope John Paul II), while forging a new relationship between Catholics and Jews, has remained silent on the serious question of why the Church failed to speak out for the Jews in the Second World War. The article is divided into four sections. The first section discusses the writer's visit to Rome to attend the Papal Mass celebrating the 50th anniversary of Karol Wojtyla's ordination to the priesthood. The writer visits with Father Gerald O'Collins of the Gregorian Institute. The writer tells an anecdote about the Pope's encounter with Father Anton Luli, the "Albanian Jesuit." The Pope is supposed to embody an absolute infallible authority unlike that asserted by any other living being; yet his infallibility prevents him from acknowledging past mistakes and thus repairing previous damage. Section II contains the writer's discussion with liberal theologian and papal critic Hans Kung, whose license to teach Roman Catholic theology was withdrawn by the Pope in 1979. Kung rejects papal infallibility and is a chief proponent of the more liberal Pope John XXIII. He claims that, by turning a blind eye, the Church was at least "co-responsible" with the Nazis for the Holocaust. The third section discusses Karol Wojtyla's youth in Krakow, Poland, during the Nazi occupation, and Pope Pius XII's silence and inaction during the Nazi terrors. Krakow Archbishop Adam Sapieha, Wojtyla's mentor, was one of the powerful Church officials urging Pius XII not to speak out. When Wojtyla made a momentous journey to Auschwitz in 1971 he set a disastrous chain of events into motion, urging followers to build a shrine at the death camps--an action which, when attempted by Carmelite nuns, deeply offended Jewish leaders. Section IV discusses the symbolism of the Cross and the Church's belief in a universalist absolutism which "thrives on the diminishment of the other." Abraham Foxman, the national director of the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, has tried to get information about "Hidden Jews," who were secretly baptized to escape the Nazis, but the Vatican offers no response.
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He wrote under the name of King Xerxes and sealed the order with the royal signet ring; he sent out the bulletins by couriers on horseback, riding the fastest royal steeds bred from the royal stud.
The king's order authorized the Jews in every city to arm and defend themselves to the death, killing anyone who threatened them or their women and children, and confiscating for themselves anything owned by their enemies.
The day set for this in all King Xerxes' provinces was the thirteenth day of the twelfth month, the month of Adar.
The order was posted in public places in each province so everyone could read it, authorizing the Jews to be prepared on that day to avenge themselves on their enemies.
The couriers, fired up by the king's order, raced off on their royal horses. At the same time, the order was posted in the palace complex of Susa.
Mordecai walked out of the king's presence wearing a royal robe of violet and white, a huge gold crown, and a purple cape of fine linen. The city of Susa exploded with joy.
For Jews it was all sunshine and laughter: they celebrated, they were honored.
It was that way all over the country, in every province, every city when the king's bulletin was posted: the Jews took to the streets in celebration, cheering, and feasting. Not only that, but many non-Jews became Jews - now it was dangerous not to be a Jew!
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Proverbs Concerning: Our Relationship To Wisdom/Understanding: Prov 3:13-14
Happy [is] the man [that] findeth wisdom, and the man [that] getteth understanding. For the merchandise of it [is] better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain thereof than fine gold.
We now continue by looking at several proverbs that address the proper relationship we should have towards the blessings of wisdom and understanding.
13) Happy [is] the man [that] findeth wisdom, and the man [that] getteth understanding.
Keep in mind..
1. Wisdom is the exercised when God’s Word is applied to our day to day life.
2. Understanding is discernment and insight into the principles of God’s Word.
In this text, the Hebrew word translated “happy” means “to be blessed”. This explains why those who possess wisdom and understanding are happy people… they have received these two wonderful, undeserved blessings from Almighty God.
“This wisdom have I seen also under the sun, and it [seemed] great unto me: [There was] a little city, and few men within it; and there came a great king against it, and besieged it, and built great bulwarks against it: Now there was found in it a poor wise man, and he by his wisdom delivered the city; yet no man remembered that same poor man. Then said I, Wisdom [is] better than strength: nevertheless the poor man’s wisdom [is] despised, and his words are not heard. The words of wise [men are] heard in quiet more than the cry of him that ruleth among fools. Wisdom [is] better than weapons of war: but one sinner destroyeth much good.” (Ecclesiastes 9:13-18)
14) For the merchandise of it [is] better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain thereof than fine gold.
The great value of the blessings of wisdom and understanding are addressed in this proverb. Their value is ….
1. greater than the profits made from the selling of fine silver.
2. greater than the revenue received from the sale of fine gold.
“But where shall wisdom be found? and where [is] the place of understanding? Man knoweth not the price thereof; neither is it found in the land of the living. The depth saith, It [is] not in me: and the sea saith, [It is] not with me. It cannot be gotten for gold, neither shall silver be weighed [for] the price thereof. It cannot be valued with the gold of Ophir, with the precious onyx, or the sapphire. The gold and the crystal cannot equal it: and the exchange of it [shall not be for] jewels of fine gold. No mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls: for the price of wisdom [is] above rubies. The topaz of Ethiopia shall not equal it, neither shall it be valued with pure gold.” (Job 28:12-19)
We should highly value the precious gifts of wisdom and understanding. They are undeserved blessings that enable us to live lives pleasing to our Lord. Their value to us cannot be overestimated. Let us all live happy lives in appreciation for these wonderful blessings that God Almighty has given to us.
By God’s grace, let us all study these proverbs diligently, giving them the value that they deserve.
May the Lord bless us as we receive this sound wisdom and then “Think On These Things”.
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discussed in biographyhead of the Talmudic academy at Sura, Babylonia, traditionally regarded as the first Jewish authority to write a complete domestic and synagogal liturgy for the year, the Siddur Rav Amram (“Order of Prayers of Rabbi Amram”). Amram’s work, forerunner in this field of those of Saʿadia ben Joseph and Maimonides, laid the foundations for the liturgies of both the Sephardim...
Siddur Rav Amram
Work by Amram bar Sheshna
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The Leaning Tower of Pisa is an eight-story, 51-foot (15.5 meter) tower standing in Pisa, Italy that, from the seventh floor, leans about 14.5 feet (4.4 meters) off center. It was built as a bell tower in the 12th century, and started to lean to the north during construction. Attempts correct the lean during further construction caused the tower to tilt toward the south instead. Further attempts to correct the lean may have almost caused the tower to collapse. Nevertheless, the Leaning Tower of Pisa’s lean continues to attract tourists from all over the world.
Construction on the tower was started in 1173 by Bonnano Pisano. After five years, with the construction of the third story, the tower started to lean to the north. Construction was abandoned in order to allow the ground to settle and to allow Pisa to concentrate on a war it was involved in. About 90 years later, three more stories were built by Giovanni de Simone, whose work caused the tower to start leaning to the south. In 1372, almost 200 years after construction started, the belfry was put on by Tommano Simone.
Over the years, many people have attempted to correct the tower’s lean. Giovanni de Simone tried to stop the lean by building the floors parallel to the ground rather than in proportion to the rest of the building. This correction instead caused the Leaning Tower of Pisa to tilt to the south instead of to the north. Another attempt to correct the lean, ordered by Benito Mussolini, was to drill holes in the foundation and fill them with concrete. That correction only made the tower sink further.
Modern attempts to stabilize the structure have caused the Leaning Tower of Pisa to sink further. In 1995, architects tried to freeze the ground with liquid nitrogen so they could work on the tower without the soil collapsing. The attempt was to try and use metal rods to stabilize the tower. Freezing the ground actually allowed for holes in the soil around the tower. This attempt caused the tower to lean as much as it would have in two years.
The Leaning tower of Pisa was eventually stabilized, however. In 1999, John Burland, a British engineering professor, suggested removing soil from the higher part of the building. The restoration efforts were finished in 2001. At the end of this construction, the tower leaned as far it did 1838.
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(Titus Flavius Clemens), born probably at Athens; died c.215. Christian writer. He succeeded Pantrenus as head of the catechetical school of Alexandria, Egypt, c.190. During the persecution of 202 the school suffered and Clement withdrew to Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he governed the local Church during the imprisonment of his pupil, Bishop Alexander. He was honored as a saint until the 17th century, when his name was dropped from the Clementine revision of the , owing to the uncertainty surrounding his life, teaching, and cult. His writings, lacking technical precision and order, were easily misjudged, and he was censured by Pope Gelasius and Photius; however, his rule of faith was sound. In opposition to the rationalizing Gnostics, then a force in Alexandria, he made faith the basis of his speculations, but interpreted Scripture in too allegorical a manner.
- “Saint Clement of Alexandria”. . CatholicSaints.Info. 17 November 2012. Web. 29 March 2015. <http://catholicsaints.info/new-catholic-dictionary-saint-clement-of-alexandria/>
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This article is within the scope of WikiProject Christianity, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Christianity on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.
This article is within the scope of WikiProject Bible, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of the Bible on Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.
I wonder if the idea of a boy being Bar Mitzvah predated its period of first record (in the Talmudic era), in some form or other. The Oral Law consisted of oral customs handed down from one generation to the next, and the consideration of a person as being a "Bar Mitzvah" may have merely been set in print in the Talmudic era after numerous generations of Jewish boys had grown up with intensive scriptural education around the younger teenage years. I suspect that the term "Bar Mitzvah" may have started as a neologism for an older status of age for a Jewish child. Of course, all this is speculation; thus it is on the talk page and not in the article. — Rickyrab | Talk 21:00, 27 February 2007 (UTC)
Thus, it would not have been unusual for people to go about teaching older children and young adults (like Jesus) Torah, and the more intelligent children (again, like Jesus) might've been interested in learning and talking with experts (such as rabbis and whatever served as the equivalent of a rabbi among the Sadduccees). As for Jesus being found in the Temple, that must've taken some time and effort. The Temple area and associated plaza was and is a big place, and it was at its grandest in the Herodian era, when Jesus was alive (and shortly after). — Rickyrab | Talk 21:07, 27 February 2007 (UTC)
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Moses An Ancient Leadership Story
This story has four sections. Stop the reading after each section to share reflection as guided in Activity 2, Description of Activity.
1. Moses Is Called to Leadership
"Today," Moses thought, "I'll take the flock to the base of the Holy Mountain . I know there is some green pasture over there." As Moses walked, he daydreamed, remembering how it was that he came to be in Midian, in the land of the Kennites. He vaguely recalled his childhood in the court of Egypt, and his long-ago discovery that he was not Egyptian, but had instead been born to a Hebrew woman, one of the slaves who labored on the Pharaoh's pyramids. He remembered that awful day when he had killed an Egyptian soldier, and then had run and run and run until he came to this land. He wondered what had become of his people, still enslaved in the land of Egypt . He thought about how lucky he was to have escaped and come to Midian. He smiled as he remembered his wife and two sons, and thought about how contented he was to spend his days tending his father-in-law Jethro's flock.
Soon Moses and the flock reached the base of the mountain, where they would surely find good pasture. As Moses walked, something caught his eye and pulled him abruptly from his reverie. A single bush was on fire, an odd occurrence. As Moses approached the bush, he heard a voice calling to him, "Moses! Moses!"
"Here I am," he replied. And the voice ordered him to put off his sandals, for the place where he was standing was holy ground.
"Who are you?" asked Moses, trembling with fright.
"I am the God of your fathers, of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. I have heard my people call out to me as they suffer in slavery. I want you to go and tell Pharaoh to let my people go!"
"Who, me? I can't do that! Why would they believe me? Whom shall I say sent me?"
"Tell them that 'I AM' sent you! I will give you a sign. Cast your staff upon the ground." When Moses threw his staff to the ground, it began to move. It became a snake! "Take the snake by the tail," commanded the voice. When Moses grabbed the snake, it became once more his staff.
Convinced that the voice was indeed God's, a reluctant Moses pointed out that he was a poor choice to go and make demands of Pharaoh: "I have never been eloquent," he said, "I am slow of speech and slow of tongue."
"Go and tell Pharaoh to let my people go! Your brother Aaron can serve as a mouthpiece for you if you need help."
"Will you please send someone else? There must be others who can do this."
"Go and tell Pharaoh to let my people go!"
And reluctantly Moses made preparations to leave for Egypt .
2. Out of
Moses was glad to meet his brother Aaron on the edge of the wilderness outside of Egypt . Aaron told him of the difficulty the Hebrew people had under the yoke of slavery. Moses told Aaron of the strange vision at the burning bush and of his understanding that he and Aaron were to go to Pharaoh and demand that he let the Hebrew people go.
A few days later, Moses and Aaron stood before Pharaoh, saying, "The God of our fathers demands that we hold a feast for him in the wilderness at a place three days' journey from here. If we do not go, then he has promised that terrible events will befall us and also the people of Egypt ."
Pharaoh mocked the request, angrily saying, "Why do you want to take your people away from their work? They must not have enough to do." And then he ordered his taskmasters to force the Hebrews to find their own straw to make bricks. The people were forced to gather stubble for straw, doubling the work expected of them.
And the foremen came to Moses and Aaron to complain: "Why did you ever go and talk to Pharaoh? You have made things worse; he has doubled our work and increased our suffering." And Moses told them of the freedom that awaited them and they kept before them the hope and the vision of the land God had promised would be theirs.
And again God said to Moses and Aaron, "Go and tell Pharaoh to let my people go." And Moses responded, "The people of Israel are not listening to me. Why would Pharaoh listen to a person like me?" But God repeated his demand.
When they went to Pharaoh, they showed him the many wonderful and terrible things that God could do. The waters of the Nile turned to blood. There was a plague of frogs in the land. Gnats invaded the land and flies swarmed throughout Egypt . And Pharaoh said, "Go and sacrifice to your God within the land of Egypt ." Moses replied, "It would not be right for us to sacrifice within the land of Egypt . We must travel three days into the wilderness for our feast."
And God demanded again that Moses go to Pharaoh and tell him to let the people go. God threatened that a sickness would come upon the cattle and a pestilence upon the people of Egypt if Pharaoh did not let the Hebrews go. There would be thunder and lightening and hail that would ruin crops and cause famine in the land. And Pharaoh did not listen, and those plagues came to pass. When the hail came upon the land, Pharaoh said to Moses, "Go and sacrifice to your God, but take only your men. Women and children and flocks and herds you must leave behind in Egypt ." And Moses said, "We must go with our young and our old; we will go with our sons and daughters and with our flocks and herds three days' journey into the wilderness to hold a feast for our God." And Pharaoh refused, driving Moses and Aaron from his presence.
And when they went again to Pharaoh to demand that he let the people go, Moses and Aaron threatened that their God would bring a plague of locusts and a plague of darkness upon the land of Egypt . And so it was that the plague of locusts was followed by a plague of darkness. And Pharaoh called Moses in to him and said, "Go and sacrifice to your God. You may bring your men, women and children, but your herds and flocks you must leave behind." And Moses said, "We must have animals to sacrifice. Not one hoof will we leave behind!" And Pharaoh said, "NO! Get out of here! If I ever see your face again, I will have you killed!"
Moses spoke to the people of Egypt and not to Pharaoh when he told of the last plague to come: All the first-born in the land of Egypt would die if Pharaoh would not let the Hebrews go. Moses and Aaron called the people of Israel together and gave them instructions, "You shall slaughter a lamb and take some of the blood and put it on your door and your doorposts so that the plague will pass over your abode." And so it was that all the first-born of the land of Egypt died that night and the first-born of the Hebrews were spared. Pharaoh heard the great cry in all of Egypt . He summoned Moses and Aaron in the dead of night and told them, "Go! Take your men, your women, your children, your flocks and your herds. Go out of Egypt now!" And the people of Israel left so quickly that they could not allow their bread to rise; they ate unleavened bread as they journeyed.
When they reached the Red Sea, Pharaoh's army was in pursuit. As Pharaoh drew near, the people cried out to Moses, "Is it because there are no graves in Egypt that you have taken us out to die in the wilderness? What have you done to us? Why didn't you leave well enough alone? In Egypt we would have lived and here we will be slaughtered." And Moses said to them, "Fear not! Stand firm!" And he stretched out his staff over the waters of the Red Sea and a great east wind blew and the waters were divided. The people passed across the Red Sea on dry land, and when they reached the other side, they watched as the waters closed in, drowning Pharaoh's pursuing army.
There was great celebration in the land, songs and dancing and the sound of tambourines. And the freed people prepared for their journey into the wilderness toward the land that God had promised them.
3. In the Wilderness
The journey through the wilderness was difficult. Moses was called on to do many things, and he sought advice from God to figure out what to do.
After three days; journey, the only water they could find was bitter and undrinkable. The people complained, demanding something to drink. Moses threw a piece of wood into the water and it became sweet. The people drank eagerly, and then continued their journey until they reached Elim, where there were 12 springs of water and 70 palm trees.
After they departed Elim, some weeks after leaving Egypt , they ran short of food. The people complained against Moses and Aaron: "If only we had died by the hand of God in the land of Egypt , when we sat by the fleshpots and ate our fill of bread; for you have brought us out into this wilderness to kill the whole assembly with hunger." And Moses told the people that God had promised manna would reign down from heaven in the night, and at daybreak they could gather and eat their fill. And so it was that manna, looking white like coriander seed with a taste like that of wafers and honey, was found everywhere as the sun rose. And the people ate their fill, and continued to gather and eat manna each morning through their journey.
And when they camped at Rephidum, there was again no water to drink. And the people complained, "Why did you bring us out of Egypt to kill us and our children and livestock with thirst?" Moses cried out to God, "What shall I do? They are ready to stone me!" And God instructed him to take his staff, and in the presence of the elders, to strike a rock. Moses did so, and water came out of the rock so the people could drink.
The Amalekites who lived in the area did not want to share their water with this wandering people, and they attacked. Moses told his commander Joshua to choose some men to fight the Amalekites. They went out to fight, and Moses, Aaron and Hur, one of the elders, went to the top of the hill. The battle unfolded before them. Whenever Moses lifted up his hand, Israel prevailed. Whenever he lowered his hand, Amalek prevailed. When Moses grew too weary to hold his hand up any longer, they brought a stone and put it under him so he could sit. Aaron and Hur held up his hands, one on one side and the other on the other side so he was steady until the sun set. Thus Joshua and the Israelites defeated the Amalekites.
When they came to the land of Midian , where Moses' father-in-law, wife and children were living, Moses told Jethro of all that had befallen since he had left Midian. Jethro observed that the people came to Moses with all of their complaints and disputes, and that Moses worked to resolve every one. Moses was exhausted, and had no time for his wife or his children. Jethro said to Moses, "Why are you doing all of this? Why must you solve disputes between people from morning until evening? You need to delegate some of this work. Choose individuals who are trustworthy. Teach them to be judges and preside over the complaints and disputes of the people." Moses listened to his father-in-law and named some judges. After that, the judges brought only the hard cases to Moses; the rest they decided themselves.
4. Forming a New Society
When they reached the foot of Mount Sinai, Moses summoned the elders and told them to instruct the people to wash their clothes and prepare for God to come three days hence. "Do not allow anyone to go up the mountain or to touch it," he said.
On the third day a thick cloud covered the mountain and there was thunder and lightening and the blast of a trumpet. Moses and Aaron approached the mountain, covering their faces. The people were afraid and stood at a distance. After a time, Moses journeyed alone to the top of the mountain, where he received from God two tablets containing the words of the covenant with Israel , the Ten Commandments. On the mountaintop, Moses received many instructions for forming a new society, including prescriptions for behavior, instructions for worship and for construction of a tabernacle and for an ark to hold the tablets of the covenant. And he was gone from the people for a long time.
Meanwhile, the people at the foot of the mountain grew anxious. "Who is this Moses anyway? And why has he been gone so long? What of this God he keeps talking about and the promises of a new land?" They urged Aaron to do something to help them, to make for them a golden calf that they might worship something familiar. Aaron was worried about the people and wanted to reassure them, so he gathered all of their gold jewelry and melted it down and created for them a golden calf to worship.
As Moses came down from the mountain carrying the tablets with the covenant, he heard much singing and dancing, and he became concerned. He knew that the first thing on those tablets was, "I am the Lord your God and you shall have no other gods before me." So when Moses came upon the people worshiping the golden calf, singing and celebrating, he grew angry. He broke the tablets. He pulverized the golden calf and put the powder into water which he made the people drink. Then he called out, "Who is on the side of the Lord?" Those who came to him he instructed to take their swords and to kill all those who had worshiped the golden calf, even brothers and cousins and other family members. Three thousand people were slaughtered that day.
Moses pitched a tent apart from the people, outside the camp. There he withdrew to speak with God and to plead on behalf of the people.
After a time, God instructed Moses to once again journey up the mountain to meet God, once again to carve tablets upon which would be written the instructions for a new society. And so Moses went up the mountain for a second time and received the words of the covenant on behalf of the people of Israel . And he came down from Mount Sinai much changed. He looked and sounded calm as he gathered the people around to tell them the laws for a new society. He instructed them on the roles they were to play, the ways they were to worship, and the ways they were to behave with one another. He ordered the construction of the ark and the tabernacle according to the instructions he had received.
And so it was that the Israelites went forth, carrying the Ark of the Covenant, journeying toward the Promised Land. But God told Moses that the people were not ready for a new land. They were to wander in the wilderness for 40 years until a generation had died; the next generation of Israelites would be the one to enter the Promised Land. Moses himself went to the mountaintop and saw the Promised Land, but did not enter it. He died there, and to this day no one knows where he is buried.
For more information contact [email protected].
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Question: "What did Jesus mean when He said, 'It is finished'?"
Answer: Of the last sayings of Christ on the cross, none is more important or more poignant than, “It is finished.” Found only in the Gospel of John, the Greek word translated “it is finished” is tetelestai, an accounting term that means “paid in full.” When Jesus uttered those words, He was declaring the debt owed to His Father was wiped away completely and forever. Not that Jesus wiped away any debt that He owed to the Father; rather, Jesus eliminated the debt owed by mankind—the debt of sin.
Just prior to His arrest by the Romans, Jesus prayed His last public prayer, asking the Father to glorify Him, just as Jesus had glorified the Father on earth, having “finished the work you have given me to do” (John 17:4). The work Jesus was sent to do was to “seek and save that which is lost” (Luke 19:10), to provide atonement for the sins of all who would ever believe in Him (Romans 3:23-25), and to reconcile sinful men to a holy God. “All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation” (2 Corinthians 5:18-19). None other but God in the flesh could accomplish such a task.
Also completed was the fulfillment of all Old Testament prophecies, symbols, and foreshadowings of the coming Messiah. From Genesis to Malachi, there are over 300 specific prophecies detailing the coming of the Anointed One, all fulfilled by Jesus. From the “seed” who would crush the serpent’s head (Genesis 3:15), to the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53, to the prediction of the “messenger” of the Lord (John the Baptist) who would “prepare the way” for the Messiah, all prophecies of Jesus’ life, ministry, and death were fulfilled and finished at the cross.
Although the redemption of mankind is the most important finished task, many other things were finished at the cross. The sufferings Jesus endured while on the earth, and especially in His last hours, were at last over. God’s will for Jesus was accomplished in His perfect obedience to the Father (John 5:30; 6:38). Most importantly, the power of sin and Satan was finished. No longer would mankind have to suffer the “flaming arrows of the evil one” (Ephesians 6:16). By raising the “shield of faith” in the One who completed the work of redemption and salvation, we can, by faith, live as new creations in Christ. Jesus’ finished work on the cross was the beginning of new life for all who were once “dead in trespasses and sins” but who are now made “alive with Christ” (Ephesians 2:1, 5).
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The first thing to notice about the Gospels is that they are skillfully designed; each one is tailored to suit its specific perspective. Matthew was a Jew, a Levite; he presents Jesus Christ as the Messiah of Israel—the Lion of the Tribe of Judah. This first book of the New Testament plunges right in to establish Jesus as the Meshiach Nagid , the Messiah the King. After first establishing the royal genealogy, Matthew then proceeds to focus on the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecies: Matthew uses the term “fulfilled” 82 times! (Again, his interest was to present Jesus as the Messiah of Israel; Jesus’ credentials are that He fulfilled prophecy .) The first miracle described in Matthew is also very Jewish—the leper was cleansed, and leprosy was, to Jews, a sign of sin. Matthew also ended his Gospel in a very Jewish way; with the Resurrection. [Matthew left out the Ascension, but remember that it is not a milestone in respect to Jesus’ Messianic mission (His return, however, will be).]
Matthew emphasized what Jesus said . He evidently recorded the discourses verbatim. As a customs official, he was a tachygrapher , or shorthand writer (The reason Matthew’s Gospel is so much longer than Mark’s is that he includes Jesus’ extensive discourses, such as the Sermon on the Mount and the Olivet Discourse; without these discourses, Mark’s Gospel is longer!) Even in the Old Testament, in Psalm 45:1, the Hebrew, mahiyr caphar , the “ready writer (KJV),” or “skillful writer (NIV),” is translated in the Greek Septuagint, oxygràphos , a synonym for tachygràphos , or shorthand writer. (The technical term must have been common enough among Greek-speaking Jews in the 3rd century B.C. for its use in the Septuagint to have any purpose.)
Though both Matthew and James are described as being the "son of Alphaeus" there is no Biblical account of the two being called brothers, even in the same context where John and James or Peter and Andrew are described as being brothers.
Matthew threw a lavish party inviting all of his tax collector friends, so they could meet the man he was going to follow. Then he gave was all of his belongings. Matthew was probably a very wealthy young man.
These were very important events at this time and yet not included in the NT. This shows us that the documents were most likely written before these events and others in this time frame occurred. Many scholars now believe that the Gospels were written before Paul’s first imprisonment in 57-60 A.D., and that virtually all of the New Testament books were written before Jerusalem’s destruction. Textual evidence suggests that the Gospels were originally written in Hebrew. In hundreds of places the Greek sentence structure betrays a Semitic influence and implies a translation from the Hebrew. It appears that within five years after the death and resurrection of Christ, most of His words and deeds had been committed to a simple written Hebrew form and Matthew is, of course, assumed to be part of this compilation.
The sacrificial rituals are specified but not explained and we don’t understand why until later. The Feast of Israel are historical however they are also prophetic. There are covenants that are incomplete, some are unconditional but still incomplete. Nothing more expressive than the book of Psalms and the wisdom literature. The key to all of these is a person - Yeshua
The first thing Jesus did after His ressurection was to conduct a seven mile bible study from the old testament.
The first thing Jesus did after His resurrection was to conduct a seven mile bible study from the old testament. The Book of Matthew makes references, it has 60 references, The other Gospels don’t have references they have allusions, this seems to be because Matthew is very Jewish.
The Old Testament starts out with the first five books – The Torah The New Testament starts out with the first five books – The Historical Books
Those autographs – originals – were in place while the authors were still alive, and there were eyewitnesses. The Greek translation was circulated with the letters. The writer of Hebrews was using the Septuagint (LXX), a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures done across the course of a couple centuries. Writers of the 2nd century not only used the LXX, but they believe it was inspired word for word. Justin Martyr, for example, claims that Ptolemy, king of Egypt, brought 70 Hebrew scholars and locked them in separate rooms, preventing their communication with one another. Despite this, all 70 scholars produced exactly the same translation, word for word, of the entire Old Testament. No one believes this today, but it was a common belief of the early c church, and the LXX was the only translation they employed, being Greek speakers ( Hortatory Address to the Greeks 13). Luke and Paul make reference to the eyewitnesses in their writings.
This is a scrap of Matthew’s Gospel that has drawn attention from many scholars. This is in a codex form, which was just coming in during the time of Mathew. The text although brief supports textus receptus. In 1994, an ancient segment of the Greek text of Matthew’s Gospel was analyzed and it appears to be dated before 66 A.D. Known as the Magdalen Papyrus , P64, it contains segments of Matthew 26:23 and 26:31 on both sides of three fragments. Using a scanning laser microscope, it has provided physical evidence “that the Gospel according to Matthew is an eyewitness account written by contemporaries of Christ.”
Using the scanning Laser they can tell much about the material written on, and even some insight into the writer, weather he was right or left handed, What kind of ink used, the pressure used while writing.
If you write a document while witnesses are still alive, It would have to contain the truth, otherwise people would discredit it.
Found only in Matthew
Found only in Matthew
Found only in Matthew
Found only in Matthew, very extensive, chapter 9 part of his job would be taking short hand.
Found only in Matthew
Presenting this genealogy was one of the most interesting ways that Matthew could begin a book for a Jewish audience. Because a person’s family line proved his or her standing as one of God’s chosen people, Matthew began by showing that Jesus was a descendant of Abraham, the father of all Jews, and a direct descendant of David, fulfilling Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah’s line. The facts of this ancestry were carefully preserved. This is the first of many proofs recorded by Matthew to show that Jesus is the true Messiah. He is also the Son of Abraham and it is very important that He be the Son of Abraham, because God had said to Abraham, “ … in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed … ” (Gen. 22:18). [son] The words “father” and “son” in Hebrew do not mean adjacently (they have no word for grandfather, or grandson). [Christ] Greek: Christos (GSN-5547), "Anointed." Hebrew = Messiahm or mashianch Jesus = Yeshua = salvation Gen 49:18; Ex 15:2; Deut 32:15
Very Jewish beginning. The first born of Jacob, Reuben is not mentioned, Only the fourth son of Jacob is here named, as it was from his loins that Messiah was to spring (Gen 49:10).
Ruth 4:12; Deuteronomy 23:2 [Thamar] “Tamar”: Cf. Gen 38 (Perez and Zerah are the illegitimate offspring of Tamar by Judah when he thought she was a prostitute and lay with her.) Four women in this genealogy. Rahab and Ruth were Gentiles. Tamar and Bathsheba were Jews. Thus Christ descended from both Jews and Gentiles. Rahab was a harlot (James 2:25). Both Tamar and Bathsheba committed adultery (Genesis 38; 2 Samuel 11:1-5). Ruth was a pure woman (Ruth 3:11). [Phares] “Perez”: 10 generations to David (Ruth 4:18-22). In Leviticus an illegitimate son prohibits inheritance until the 10th generation. “ Perez and Zerah” Perez and Zerah were twins (cf. Gen. 38:27–30). The Messianic line came through Perez.
Rahab: of Joshua’s time. Thus, Boaz had a Gentile mother, Rahab! (Joshua 2:1-24; Joshua 6:25; James 2:25).
Bathsheba not mentioned by name, only as Urias’s wife. It may be a hint of where the sin laid here, it was with David. David's line in Matthew is the royal line through Solomon. His line in Luke 3:23-38 is through Nathan, another son (2 Samuel 5:14), and Heli, the father of Mary. Both lines were necessary in fulfilling prophecy. God had cursed Jechoniah (Coniah or Jehoiachin) of the royal line and sworn that no seed of his should ever sit on the throne of David and reign in Jerusalem (Jeremiah 22:24-30). God had also sworn to David that his line through Solomon would forever sit on his throne (2 Samuel 7). The only way this could be fulfilled was for Jesus, the Son of David through Nathan and Mary, to become the legal heir to the throne of David through Joseph of the kingly line (Luke 1:32-33; Isaiah 9:6-7; Rev. 5:5; Rev. 22:16). Jesus, being the foster Son of Joseph and the firstborn in the family, became the legal heir to David's throne through Joseph.
God pronounces a blood curse on Jeconiah! Matthew takes us down the royal line through Jeconiah to David and then Joseph. The Messiah must be eligible for the throne of David, yet can’t be under the blood curse of Jeconiah. Luke gives us the answer (Luke 3). This genealogy from Adam to Abraham through David is the same as Matthew, but at David Luke goes through Nathan (not Solomon) down to Heli, the father of Mary. Of the house of David, yet NOT under the blood curse of Jeconiah!
Jechonias didn’t beget Salathiel – There is a very important verse that places a blood curse on Jeconiah who is also called Jehoiachin. Salathiel “adopted” to circumvent blood curse on Jeconiah? He was son of Neri (Luke 3:27), a descendant of David through his son Nathan. [Salathiel] 1 Chron. 3:17-19; Ezra 3:2; Ezra 5:2. The Adoption in the Torah is a very important concept to us because we are in the same way adopted into the Jewish nation, and through that adoption have a right to the inheritance due the Jewish peoples. We are grafted in through Christ, Gal 3.
Abiud] The nine men from here to Joseph are not mentioned elsewhere in Scripture.
“ Zadok” This was not the faithful priest of David’s day (cf. II Sam. 20:25; I Chr. 16:39) because Matthew’s Zadok is of the tribe of Judah, not Levi
The legal line of Jesus to the throne, through Joseph. Very unusual to have women in a genealogy, yet in Jesus’ we see 5 women listed (Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, Bathsheba and Mary)! You see that this breaks the pattern which began as far back as verse 2 where it says that Abraham begat Isaac. From then on it was just a whole lot of “ begetting, ” and verse 16 begins by saying, “ And Jacob begat Joseph. ” You would expect it to continue by saying that Joseph begat Jesus, but it does not say that. Instead, it says, “ Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ. ” Obviously, Matthew is making it clear that Joseph is not the father of Jesus. Although he is the husband of Mary, he is not the father of Jesus.
Here’s the way it happened, Matthew is telling us. When His mother, Mary, was espoused to Joseph, that is, she was engaged to him, before they came together—they had had no sexual relationship—she was found with child of the Holy Spirit. Satan tries to copy or mimic God. I would not be surprised if we hear of another miraculous birth in the future, a woman who conceives through Satan.
[just] Greek: dikaios (GSN-1342), righteous [publick example] Expose her to public shame and death, as required by law (Deut. 22:25-28). The Mosaic Law was very specific at this point. It said that a woman who was guilty of being unfaithful should be stoned to death—that was the extreme penalty. But this man Joseph was a remarkable man. We devote a great deal of attention to Mary, and rightly so. Protestants should not let themselves be deterred from giving Mary a great deal of credit. She was a remarkable person. Remember that she was the one whom God chose to be the mother of our Lord, and God makes no mistakes. He picked the right girl. While all of this is true, we need to remember that God also chose Joseph. God made no mistake in choosing him either. A hotheaded man would immediately have had her stoned to death or would have made her a public example by exposing her. But Joseph was not that kind of man. He was a gentle person. He was in love with her, and he did not want to hurt her in any way, although he felt that she had been unfaithful to him
In order to prevent a very tragic situation, the angel appeared to Joseph to make clear to him what was taking place. [dream] First of six dreams in the New Testament, all in Matthew (Matthew 1:20; Matthew 2:12,13,19,22; Matthew 27:19). In the Old Testament, angels often brought messages in dreams; in Greek literature, deceased people (as well as pagan deities) often brought messages, but this occurs nowhere in the Bible. The Old Testament does mention expert dream interpreters, like Daniel (Dan 1:17; 2:19–45) and Jacob’s son Joseph (Gen 37:5–11; 40–41). Most stories from here in Matthew 1 to the end of Matthew 2 involve supernatural guidance (dreams or the star).
The name Jesus means “salvation” or “ Savior. ” He shall have the name Jesus because He shall save His people from their sins. This is the 1st New Testament prophecy in Matthew (Matthew 1:21, and it was fulfilled in Matthew 1:25). The next prophecy is in Matthew 2:13. [named] Last of seven persons named before birth: Ishmael (Genesis 16:11); Isaac (Genesis 17:19); Solomon (1 Chron. 22:9); Josiah, (325 years before birth, 1 Kings 13:2; 2 Kings 22:1); Cyrus (175 years before birth, Isaiah 44:28-45:1); John the Baptist (Luke 1:13,60-63); Jesus (Matthew 1:21). The KJV renders this verse, “ … and thou shalt call his name Jesus: for he shall save his people from their sins.” But in English, saving people from sins is no more reason for calling someone Jesus than for calling him Bill or Frank. The Greek is no better; only in Hebrew or Aramaic does the explanation explain.
The 1st Old Testament prophecy fulfilled in Matthew (Matthew 1:23; Isaiah 7:14).
[virgin] Almah: damsel, maid, virgin: untouched. “The virgin”: Definite article (Cf. Gen 24:43; Ex 2:8; Ps 68:25; SoS 1:3; Prov 30:19). LXX - (Septuagint) Greek word used in this verse is “parthenos” which means virgin. ( Lowth, Gesenius, Ewald, Delitzsch, Kay, et al.— Greek scholars—all agree that it means virgin.) Here we have one of the most wonderful things in the entire Word of God. Let’s look at this. Emmanuel means “ God with us. ” He can’t be Emmanuel, God with us, unless He is virgin born. That’s the only way! And notice, unless He is Emmanuel, He cannot be Jesus, the Savior. The reason they call Him Jesus, Savior, is because He is God with us. This truth about the One who came down to this earth is one of the most wonderful things in the Bible.
Until she had given birth. Protestants generally affirm that Miryam was a virgin when Yeshua was born, but that “his sisters” (plural: at least two) and four brothers (13:55–56, Mk 6:3) were Miryam and Yosef’s natural children. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that Miryam remained a virgin all her life, and that the terms “brothers” and “sisters” are used loosely to refer to more distant relatives.
The record of what they did is recorded in scripture but they were blotted out of the genealogy. Later when it says there were 14 generations from this one to that one, there were really 17 but these three were blotted out completely.
These three guys got into idolatry, and encouraged it within the community, and were slain. Deuteronomy talks about what can happen to people who get into idolatry.
This is the royal line – you can imagine what Satan must have thought. There is a blood curse on the royal line.
Luke comes down to Heli who is Mary’s father. We will see in verse 16 16 And Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ. Because of the sin of this man Jechonias, no one in his line could ever sit on the throne of David. You see, Joseph is in this line, but Joseph is not the natural father of Jesus. This is one of the most remarkable facts in the Scriptures, and Matthew is trying to make it clear to us. Joseph gave to Jesus the title, the legal title, to the throne of David because Joseph was the husband of Mary who was the one who bore Jesus. Jesus Christ is not the seed of Joseph, nor is He the seed of Jeconiah. But both Joseph and Mary had to be from the line of David, and they were—through two different lines from two different sons of David. We’ll find when we get to Luke that Mary’s line comes from David through his son Nathan. Joseph’s line comes through the royal line through Solomon.
The father of the bride adopts the son into the family. Then he and the daughter can receive the inheritance. By this Jesus has a right to the thrown both thru the father and the mother.
These are not blood line but are of the adopted type. Or perhaps they are not the same persons two different Salathiel and two different Zerubbabel. Jewish genealogy tend to skip omit or overlook persons of unimportance, embarrassment, or uncertainty. Jesus is referred to as the son of David we know there is at least 28+ generations between David and Jesus.
10 Moreover the LORD spake again unto Ahaz, saying, 11 Ask thee a sign of the LORD thy God; ask it either in the depth, or in the height above. 12 But Ahaz said, I will not ask, neither will I tempt the LORD. 13 And he said, Hear ye now, O house of David; Is it a small thing for you to weary men, but will ye weary my God also? Alma a young woman; a virgin. LXX translated it virgin. This is something new – a new thing as described and prophesied by Jeremiah.
Mathew Chapter 1
Matthew Introduction (Psalm 45:1) My heart is inditing a good matter: I speak of the things which I have made touching the king: my tongue is the pen of a ready writer. Stenographic Skill
Matthew is the 1 st book of the New Testament, but most likely was not the first to be put into writing.
Matthew Introduction Is Canon Complete? Old Testament: Unexplained Ceremonies (Sacrificial Rituals) Unachieved Purposes (Covenants) Unappeased Longings (Poetical books) Unfulfilled Prophecies (over 7,000...)
John 5:39 Search the scriptures; for in them ye think ye have eternal life: and they are they which testify of me.
Luke 24:27 And beginning at Moses and all the prophets, he expounded unto them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself.
The New Testament Historical Books 5 The Gospels 4 Acts 1 Interpretive Letters 21 Paul’s Epistles 14 Hebrew Christian Epistles 7 The Revelation 1 27
The New Testament The Old Testament compiled over several thousand years; The New Testament compiled within one lifetime: Four Gospels (Luke in two volumes) Pauline Corpus (and other epistles) Circulated with LXX for instruction & worship Luke & Paul rely on contemporary eye- witnesses
Matthew 1:1 The book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham.
Matthew 1:2 Abraham begat Isaac; and Isaac begat Jacob; and Jacob begat Judas and his brethren;
Matthew 1:3 And Judas begat Phares and Zara of Thamar; and Phares begat Esrom; and Esrom begat Aram;
Matthew 1:4 And Aram begat Aminadab; and Aminadab begat Naasson; and Naasson begat Salmon;
Matthew 1:5 And Salmon begat Booz of Rachab; and Booz begat Obed of Ruth; and Obed begat Jesse;
Matthew 1:6 And Jesse begat David the king; and David the king begat Solomon of her that had been the wife of Urias;
Matthew 1:7 And Solomon begat Roboam; and Roboam begat Abia; and Abia begat Asa;
Matthew 1:8 And Asa begat Josaphat; and Josaphat begat Joram; and Joram begat Ozias;
Matthew 1:9 And Ozias begat Joatham; and Joatham begat Achaz; and Achaz begat Ezekias;
Matthew 1:10 And Ezekias begat Manasses; and Manasses begat Amon; and Amon begat Josias;
Matthew 1:11 And Josias begat Jechonias and his brethren, about the time they were carried away to Babylon:
Matthew 1:12 And after they were brought to Babylon, Jechonias begat Salathiel; and Salathiel begat Zorobabel;
Matthew 1:13 And Zorobabel begat Abiud; and Abiud begat Eliakim; and Eliakim begat Azor;
Matthew 1:14 And Azor begat Sadoc; and Sadoc begat Achim; and Achim begat Eliud;
Matthew 1:15 And Eliud begat Eleazar; and Eleazar begat Matthan; and Matthan begat Jacob
Matthew 1:16 And Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ.
Matthew 1:17 So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; and from David until the carrying away into Babylon are fourteen generations; and from the carrying away into Babylon unto Christ are fourteen generations.
Matthew 1:18 Now the birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise: When as his mother Mary was espoused to Joseph, before they came together, she was found with child of the Holy Ghost.
Matthew 1:19 Then Joseph her husband, being a just man, and not willing to make her a public example, was minded to put her away privily.
Matthew 1:20 But while he thought on these things, behold, the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a dream, saying, Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife: for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Ghost.
Matthew 1:21 And she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name JESUS: for he shall save his people from their sins.
Matthew 1:22 Now all this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying,
Matthew 1:23 Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth a son, and they shall call his name Emmanuel, which being interpreted is, God with us.
Matthew 1:24 Then Joseph being raised from sleep did as the angel of the Lord had bidden him, and took unto him his wife:
Matthew 1:25 And knew her not till she had brought forth her firstborn son: and he called his name JESUS.
3 Guys Missing (Deut 29:20) The LORD will not spare him, but then the anger of the LORD and his jealousy shall smoke against that man, and all the curses that are written in this book shall lie upon him, and the LORD shall blot out his name from under heaven.
3 Guys Missing Ahaziah slain by Jehu 2 Kings 9 Joash slain by servant 2 Kings 12 Amaziah slain by Jerusalem 2 Kings 14
Jeremiah 22:30 Thus saith the LORD, Write ye this man childless, a man that shall not prosper in his days: for no man of his seed shall prosper, sitting upon the throne of David, and ruling any more in Judah.
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|In 1749 Johann W. von Goethe was born in this small building in the city of Frankfurt. Goethe was one of the paramount figures of German literature and European Neo-Classicism. |
Goethe, born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany,
(28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German novelist, dramatist, humanist, scientist, philosopher, and for ten years chief minister of state at Weimar.
Considered a brilliant writer, Goethe was one of the paramount figures of German literature and European Neo-classicism and Romanticism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The author of Faust and Theory of Colours, he inspired Darwin with his independent discovery of the human premaxilla jaw bones and focus on evolution. Goethe's influence spread across Europe, and for the next century his works were a primary source of inspiration in music, drama, and poetry.
(Information provided by Karmey)
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ja'-el (ya`el, "a wild or mountain goat," as in Psalms 104:18; Iael):
The wife of Heber the Kenite and the slayer of Sisera (Judges 4:17-22; 5:2-31). Jael emerges from obscurity by this single deed, and by the kindest construction can hardly be said to have reached an enviable fame. The history of this event is clear. For years Jabin the king of Canaan had oppressed Israel. For twenty years the Israelites had been subject to him, and, in largest measure, the instrument of their subjugation had been Sisera, the king's general, the "man of the iron chariots." Deborah, a prophetess of Israel, by her passion for freedom, had roused the tribes of Israel to do battle against Sisera. They defeated him at "Taanach by the waters of Megiddo," but Sisera sought in flight to save himself. He came to the "oaks of the wanderers," where the tribe of Heber lived. Here he sought, and was probably invited, to take shelter in the tent of Jael (Judges 4:17-18). There are two accounts of the subsequent events--one a prose narrative (Judges 4:19-22), the other a poetic one, found in Deborah's song of triumph (Judges 5:24-27). The two accounts are as nearly in agreement as could be expected, considering their difference in form.
It is evident that the tribe of Heber was regarded by both parties to the struggle as being neutral. They were descendants of Jethro, and hence, had the confidence of the Israelites. Though they had suffered somewhat at the hands of the Canaanites they had made a formal contract of peace with Jabin. Naturally Sisera could turn to the tents of Heber in Kedesh-naphtali with some confidence. The current laws of hospitality gave an added element of safety. Whether Jael met Sisera and urged him to enter her tent and rest (Judges 4:18), or only invited him after his appeal for refuge, the fact remains that he was her guest, was in the sanctuary of her home, and protected by the laws of hospitality:
She gave him milk to drink, a mantle for covering, and apparently acquiesced in his request that she should stand guard at the tent and deny his presence to any pursuers. When sleep came to the wearied fugitive she took a "tent-pin, and took a hammer in her hand, and went softly unto him, and smote the pin into his temples" (Judges 4:21), and having murdered him, goes forth to meet Barak the Israelite general and claims the credit for her deed. Some critics suggest that Sisera was not asleep when murdered, and thus try to convert Jael's treachery into strategy. But to kill your guest while he is drinking the milk of hospitality is little less culpable than to murder him while asleep. There is no evidence that Sisera offered Jael any insult or violence, and but little probability that she acted under any spiritual or Divine suggestion. It is really impossible to justify Jael's act, though it is not impossible to understand it or properly to appreciate Deborah's approval of the act as found in Judges 5:24. The motive of Jael may have been a mixed one. She may have been a sympathizer with Israel and with the religion of Israel. But the narrative scarcely warrants the interpretation that she felt herself as one called to render "stern justice on an enemy of God" (Expositor's Bible). Jael was unquestionably prudential. Sisera was in flight and Barak in pursuit. Probably her sympathy was with Barak, but certainly reflection would show her that it would not be wisdom to permit Barak to find Sisera in her tent. She knew, too, that death would be Sisera's portion should he be captured--therefore she would kill him and thus cement a friendship with the conqueror.
As to Deborah's praise of Jael (Judges 5:24), there is no call to think that in her hour of triumph she was either capable of or intending to appraise the moral quality of Jael's deed. Her country's enemy was dead and that too at the hand of a woman. The woman who would kill Sisera must be the friend of Israel. Deborah had no question of the propriety of meting out death to a defeated persecutor. Her times were not such as to raise this question. The method of his death mattered little to her, for all the laws of peace were abrogated in the times of war. Therefore Jael was blessed among women by all who loved Israel. Whether Deborah thought her also to be worthy of the blessing of God we may not tell. At any rate there is no need for us to try to justify the treachery of Jael in order to explain the words of Deborah.
C. E. Schenk
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The Maccabees, also spelled Machabees (Hebrew: מכבים or מקבים, Maqabim; Latin: Machabi or Machado; Greek: Μακκαβαῖοι, Makkabaioi), were the leaders of a Jewish rebel army that took control of Judea, which at the time had been a province of the Seleucid Empire. They founded the Hasmonean dynasty, which ruled from 164 BCE to 63 BCE. They reasserted the Jewish religion, partly by forced conversion, expanded the boundaries of Judea by conquest and reduced the influence of Hellenism and Hellenistic Judaism.
In the 2nd century BCE, Judea lay between the Ptolemaic Kingdom based in Egypt and the Seleucid empire based in Syria, kingdoms formed after the death of Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE). Judea had been under Ptolemaic rule, but fell to the Seleucids around 200 BCE. Judea at that time had been affected by the Hellenization begun by Alexander. Some Jews, mainly those of the urban upper class, notably the Tobiad family, wished to dispense with Jewish law and to adopt a Greek lifestyle. According to the historian Victor Tcherikover, the main motive for the Tobiads' Hellenism was economic and political. The Hellenizing Jews built a gymnasium in Jerusalem, competed in international Greek games, "removed their marks of circumcision and repudiated the holy covenant".
When Antiochus IV Epiphanes (ca. 215–164 BCE), became ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 175 BCE, the High Priest in Jerusalem was Onias III. To Antiochus, the High Priest was merely a local governor within his realm, who could be appointed or dismissed at will, while to orthodox Jews he was divinely appointed. Jason, the brother of Onias, bribed Antiochus to make him High Priest instead. Jason abolished the traditional theocracy and constituted Jerusalem as a Greek polis. Menelaus then bribed Antiochus and was appointed High Priest in place of Jason. Menelaus had Onias assassinated. Menelaus' brother Lysimachus stole holy vessels from the Temple, causing riots that led to his death. Menelaus was arrested for Onias' murder, and was arraigned before Antiochus, but he bribed his way out of trouble. Jason subsequently drove out Menelaus and became High Priest again. Antiochus pillaged the Temple, attacked Jerusalem and "led captive the women and children". From this point onwards, Antiochus pursued a zealous Hellenizing policy. He made possession of the Torah a capital offense and burned the copies he could find. According to 1 Maccabees, he banned many traditional Jewish religious practices: Jewish sacrifice was forbidden, sabbaths and feasts were banned. Circumcision was outlawed, and mothers who circumcised their babies were killed along with their families. Altars to Greek gods were set up and animals prohibited to Jews were sacrificed on them. The idol of Olympian Zeus was placed on the altar of the Temple. The motives of Antiochus are unclear. He may have been incensed at the overthrow of his appointee, Menelaus, or he may have been responding to an orthodox Jewish revolt that drew on the Temple and the Torah for its strength and encouraged by a group of radical Hellenizers among the Jews.
In the narrative of I Maccabees, after Antiochus issued his decrees forbidding Jewish religious practice, a rural Jewish priest from Modiin, Mattathias the Hasmonean, sparked the revolt against the Seleucid Empire by refusing to worship the Greek gods. Mattathias killed a Hellenistic Jew who stepped forward to offer a sacrifice to an idol in Mattathias' place. He and his five sons fled to the wilderness of Judah. After Mattathias' death about one year later in 166 BCE, his son Judas Maccabee led an army of Jewish dissidents to victory over the Seleucid dynasty in guerrilla warfare, which at first was directed against Hellenizing Jews, of whom there were many. The Maccabees destroyed pagan altars in the villages, circumcised boys and forced Jews into outlawry. The term Maccabees as used to describe the Jewish army is taken from the Hebrew word for "hammer".
The revolt involved many battles, in which the Maccabean forces gained notoriety among the Seleucid army for their use of guerrilla tactics. After the victory, the Maccabees entered Jerusalem in triumph and ritually cleansed the Temple, reestablishing traditional Jewish worship there and installing Jonathan Maccabee as high priest. A large Seleucid army was sent to quash the revolt, but returned to Syria on the death of Antiochus IV. Its commander Lysias, preoccupied with internal Seleucid affairs, agreed to a political compromise that restored religious freedom.
The Jewish festival of Hanukkah celebrates the re-dedication of the Temple following Judah Maccabee's victory over the Seleucids. According to Rabbinic tradition, the victorious Maccabees could only find a small jug of oil that had remained uncontaminated by virtue of a seal, and although it only contained enough oil to sustain the Menorah for one day, it miraculously lasted for eight days, by which time further oil could be procured.
Following the re-dedication of the temple, the supporters of the Maccabees were divided over the question of whether to continue fighting or not. When the revolt began under the leadership of Mattathias, it was seen as a war for religious freedom to end the oppression of the Seleucids. However, as the Maccabees realized how successful they had been, many wanted to continue the revolt and conquer other lands with Jewish populations or to convert their peoples. This policy exacerbated the divide between the Pharisees and Sadducees under later Hasmonean monarchs such as Alexander Jannaeus. Those who sought the continuation of the war were led by Judah Maccabee.
On his death in battle in 160 BCE, Judah was succeeded as army commander by his younger brother, Jonathan, who was already High Priest. Jonathan made treaties with various foreign states, causing further dissent between those who merely desired religious freedom and those who sought greater power.
In 142 BCE, Jonathan was assassinated by Diodotus Tryphon, a pretender to the Seleucid throne, and was succeeded by Simon Maccabee, the last remaining son of Mattathias. Simon gave support to Demetrius II Nicator, the Seleucid king, and in return Demetrius exempted the Maccabees from tribute. Simon conquered the port of Joppa where the Gentile population were 'forcibly removed', the fortress of Gezer and expelled the garrison from the Acra in Jerusalem. In 140 BCE, he was recognised by an assembly of the priests, leaders and elders as high priest, military commander and ruler of Israel. Their decree became the basis of the Hasmonean kingdom. Shortly after, the Roman senate renewed its alliance with the Hasmonean kingdom and commanded its allies in the eastern Mediterranean to do so also. Although the Maccabees won autonomy, the region remained a province of the Seleucid Empire and Simon was required to provide troops to Antiochus VII Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius II. When Simon refused to give up the territory he had conquered, Antiochus took them by force.
Simon was murdered in 134 BCE by his son-in-law Ptolemy, and was succeeded as high priest and king by his son John Hyrcanus I. Antiochus conquered the entire district of Judea, but refrained from attacking the Temple or interfering with Jewish observances. Judea was freed from Seleucid rule on the death of Antiochus in 129 BCE.
Independent Hasmonean rule lasted until 63 BCE, when the Roman general Pompeus intervened in Hasmonean civil war, making it a client kingdom of Rome. The Hasmonean dynasty ended in 37 BCE when the Idumean Herod the Great became king of Israel, designated "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate, effectively transforming the Hasmonean Kingdom into Herodian Kingdom – a client kingdom of Rome.
Mention in the Bible
The story of the Maccabees is told in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees, which are deuterocanonical books in most Christian biblical canons, and in 3 Maccabees and 4 Maccabees, which are in a few Eastern Christian canons. 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees are part of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox canons, but not part of the Protestant Old Testament or the Jewish Bible.
Origin of name
|The Holy Maccabees|
Wojciech Stattler's "Machabeusze" ("The Maccabees"), 1844
|Born||2nd century BCE
Judea (modern-day Israel)
|Venerated in||Roman Catholic Church
Eastern Orthodox Churches
The name Maccabee is often used as a synonym for the entire Hasmonean Dynasty, but the Maccabees proper were Judah Maccabee and his four brothers. The name Maccabee was a personal epithet of Judah, and the later generations were not his direct descendants. One explanation of the name's origins is that it derives from the Aramaic "makkaba", "the hammer", in recognition of Judah's ferocity in battle. The traditional Jewish explanation is that Maccabee (Hebrew: מקבים Machabi, מקבים) is an acronym for the Torah verse that was the battle-cry of the Maccabees, "Mi chamocha ba'elim YHWH", "Who is like You among the heavenly powers, Hashem!", as well as an acronym for "Matityahu Kohen ben Yochanan. The correlating Torah verse Exodus 15:11, The song of Moses and the Children of Israel by the Sea, makes a reference to Elim, with a mundane notion of natural forces, heavenly might, war and governmental powers. The scholar and poet Aaron Kaminka argues that the name is a corruption of Machbanai, a leading commando in the army of King David.
Holy Maccabean martyrs
2 Maccabees and 4 Maccabees recount the martyrdom of seven Jewish brothers, their mother and their teacher. Although these are not said to be of the Maccabee family, they are referred to in Christianity as the Holy Maccabean Martyrs or the Holy Maccabees.
The three Ethiopian books of Meqabyan (quite distinct works from the other four books of Maccabees), which are canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, also refer to the Maccabee martyrs. The first of these books states that their father was a Benjamite named Maccabeus, and that three of the brothers, who are called Abya, Seela, and Fentos, were captured and martyred for leading a guerilla war against Antiochus Epiphanes.
From before the time of the Tridentine Calendar, the Holy Maccabees had a commemoration in the Roman Rite liturgy within the feast of Saint Peter in Chains. This commemoration remained within the weekday liturgy when in 1960 Pope John XXIII suppressed this particular feast of Saint Peter. Nine years later, 1 August became the feast of Saint Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori and the mention of the Maccabee martyrs was omitted from the General Roman Calendar, since in its 1969 revision it no longer admitted commemorations.
The author of the First Book of Maccabees regarded the Maccabean revolt as a rising of pious Jews against the Seleucid king who had tried to eradicate their religion and against the Jews who supported him. The author of the Second Book of Maccabees presented the conflict as a struggle between "Judaism" and "Hellenism", words that he was the first to use. Most modern scholars argue that the king was reacting to a civil war between traditionalist Jews in the countryside and Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem, though the king's response of persecuting the religious traditionalists was unusual in antiquity, and was the immediate provocation for the revolt. According to Joseph P. Schultz, modern scholarship "considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppression than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp", while John J. Collins writes that while the civil war between Jewish leaders led to the king's new policies, it is wrong to see the revolt as simply a conflict between Hellenism and Judaism, since "The revolt was not provoked by the introduction of Greek customs (typified by the building of a gymnasium) but by the persecution of people who observed the Torah by having their children circumcised and refusing to eat pork." In the conflict over the office of High Priest, traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contested with Hellenizers with Greek names like Jason and Menelaus. Other authors point to social and economic factors in the conflict. What began as a civil war took on the character of an invasion when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews against the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus prohibited the practices of the traditionalists, thereby, in a departure from usual Seleucid practice, banning the religion of an entire people. Other scholars argue that while the rising began as a religious rebellion, it was gradually transformed into a war of national liberation.
- Alexander Jannaeus
- Antinomianism in the Books of the Maccabees
- Aristobulus I
- Aristobulus II
- Hellenistic Judaism
- Hyrcanus II
- Jewish nationalism
- John Gaddi
- John Hyrcanus
- Jonathan Apphus
- Judas Maccabeus
- My Glorious Brothers, novel by Howard Fast
- Salome Alexandra
- Simon Thassi
- Tcherikover, Victor Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews, New York: Atheneum, 1975
- I Maccabees, i, 15
- Oesterley, W.O.E., A History of Israel, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1939.
- De Lange, Nicholas, Atlas of the Jewish World, Oxford: Andromeda, 1992
- I Maccabees, i, 30–32
- I Macccabees. 1:57
- "1 Maccabees 1:60–61 (New Revised Standard w/ Apocrypha)". biblestudytools.com.
- Nicholas de Lange (ed.), The Illustrated History of the Jewish People, London, Aurum Press, 1997, ISBN 1-85410-530-2
- "Jewish Virtual Library". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
- "Talmud, Tractate Shabbat". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
- Cohen, Shaye J.D., From the Maccabees to the Mishnah (Second Edition. Westminster John Knox Press, 2006)
- Jews in the Mediterranean diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE – 117 CE) John M Barclay University of California press pg 247
- Josephus' Jewish War 1.14.4: Mark Antony " …then resolved to get him made king of the Jews… told them that it was for their advantage in the Parthian war that Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when the senate was separated, Antony and Caesar went out, with Herod between them; while the consul and the rest of the magistrates went before them, in order to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign;"
- Latin: Maccabaeus, Greek: Makkabaios, from Hebrew maqqeb et, hammer (Oxford English Dictionary).
- See 11 Maccabees 2:4
- "The Machabees". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
- Scherman, Nosson (ed.) ; contributing editors, Yaakov Blinder, Avie Gold, Meir Zlotowitz ; designed by Sheah Brander (1998). Tanakh = Tanach : Torah, Neviʼim, Ketuvim : the Torah, Prophets, Writings : the twenty-four books of the Bible, newly translated and annotated (1st student size ed., Stone ed. ed.). Brooklyn, N.Y.: Mesorah Publications. pp. 171–172. ISBN 1578191092.
- Exodus 15:11
- "What does "Maccabee" mean? – Ask the Rabbi". Oztorah.com. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
- "The Seven Holy Maccabean Martyrs". Holytrinityorthodox.com. 2007-05-20. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
- "Calendarium Romanum" (Libreria Editrice Vatican, 1969), p. 132
- Telushkin, Joseph (1991). Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know about the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History. W. Morrow. p. 114. ISBN 0-688-08506-7.
- Greenberg, Irving (1993). The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays. Simon & Schuster. p. 29. ISBN 0-671-87303-2.
- Johnston, Sarah Iles (2004). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard University Press. p. 186. ISBN 0-674-01517-7.
- Schultz, Joseph P. (1981). Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 155. ISBN 0-8386-1707-7.
Modern scholarship on the other hand considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppression than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp
- Gundry, Robert H. (2003). A Survey of the New Testament. Zondervan. p. 9. ISBN 0-310-23825-0.
- Freedman, David Noel; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 837. ISBN 0-8028-2400-5.
- Wood, Leon James (1986). A Survey of Israel's History. Zondervan. p. 357. ISBN 0-310-34770-X.
- Jewish Life and Thought Among Greeks and Romans: Primary Readings, By Louis H. Feldman, Meyer Reinhold, Fortress Press, 1996, p. 147
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maccabees.|
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Maccabees, The
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (Before A.D. 71)
- Online Encyclopedia: Maccabees (original source 1911 EB)
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|Sunday school resources - The Greatest Commandment|
|Written by Andrew Hewlett|
The Greatest Command – Love God and Love your neighbour Matt 22: 34-46 or Mark 12:28-34
Idea for Youth group talk or Children’s sermon:
Show the children a “Guinness book of world records.” Ask them is they know what is the greatest
(fill in the blank) in the world. Test them on some fun facts about greatness. Explain how the religious teachers tested Jesus by asking him what was the greatest commandment of all. Discuss with the children how Jesus said the greatest command of all was to love God and to love others.
Object lesson items: A Guinness book of world records. (Ask families who have children. This is a popular book. You can also find it at the library.)
Children’s sermon / Sunday school lesson introduction:
Good morning children! I’m going to show you a very interesting book I have here this morning. It’s called the “Guinness book of world records.” Have you heard of this book? It is full of world record holders. It lists the greatest athlete in the world, the greatest hamburger, the greatest painter, and the greatest roller skater. (Show some pictures to the children and have some fun. Then ask them some “test” questions about greatness.) Who do you think is the greatest singer of all time? What is the greatest rock and roll band of all time?
(You might even mention that the Bible is mentioned as the best selling book of all time.)
Today’s bible reading from the gospel of Matthew tells how the religious leaders asked a “test” question to Jesus. They asked him what was the greatest commandment of all. Of course, Jesus knew the answer! He said that the greatest commandment was to “love God and to love others.” He said that the whole message of their bible (the Law and the Prophets) was about the importance of loving God and loving others. That is important for us to know too. It’s nice to know who is the greatest hockey player, what is the greatest country in the world and what is the greatest book in the world. Yet, it is most important that we know the greatest commandment is to love God and love others.
Children’s prayer: Dear God, Jesus taught that the greatest command of all. With the help of your Holy Spirit help us to obey this command to truly love you and to love others. In Jesus’ name – Amen!
Copyright 2011 sundaychildrensfocus.com Andrew Hewlett Feel free to use this Sunday morning but please give credit to Sundaychildrensfocus and consider linking to the web site. Thank you! A.H.
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On August 19, 1989, Hungarians and Austrians gathered at their border - sealed off since 1945 - for a picnic. Walburga Habsburg Douglas remembers how 600 East Germans used it as a cover to flee West.
DW: How do you feel about the Pan-European Picnic today, 25 years later?
Walburga Habsburg Douglas: I feel incredibly thankful, proud and happy that I was able to be there when the Iron Curtain fell. As long as I can remember, I've worked toward European unity. At the picnic, we saw the beginnings of European reunification.
What gave you the idea for a Pan-European Picnic?
My father, Otto von Habsburg, had just been re-elected as a Christian Social (CSU) MP for the European Parliament. After the vote, he traveled to Hungary to tell people about the significance of the European election for Central and Eastern Europe. We pondered what we could do to show that Hungary is a part of Europe – and had the idea of a cross-border picnic.
From 1916 to 1918, my father was crown prince of Austria-Hungary, so he was an important man. But since he didn't want to be the center of attention and the event was aimed at discussing what role Hungary should play in Europe in the future, he sent me to the border as a representative of the Pan-European Union. I had already asked the Hungarian government for permission. Together, Minister of State Imre Pozsgay and my father sponsored the project.
Had you expected the East German run on the border, or even planned it?
As we were preparing for the event, we realized that it was a possibility. We distributed flyers in Budapest, which was full of East Germans. And we thought, perhaps this is an opportunity for these people to escape their mouse trap.
Weren't you afraid when the masses stormed across the border?
I wasn't afraid because I knew that the Soviets had withdrawn their troops from the border with Austria. That would have been the only thing to be afraid of. The mood was so uplifting. And then I asked the Hungarian border patrol about their reaction in case of a mass flight. They said they had three options: "We could try to stop them – but it's just the four of us. We could shoot, but we don't have orders. So we've decided to turn our backs and not even watch." I thought that was perfect. In the end, 661 East Germans managed to flee.
In his book "Der erste Riss in der Mauer" (The first Crack in the Wall), Andreas Oplatka, a Hungarian-Austrian author, says the Hungarian government used this picnic planned by citizens to find out whether the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary would bolster their border controls. Would you agree with his point of view?
I didn't feel used at all. But on the eve of the picnic, I knew something was going to happen. We were aware that the Iron Curtain could fall.
Back then, were you also aware of the consequences this event could have for German unification?
I'd be exaggerating if I said I had an inkling, but I did have the feeling that something was brewing. After all, I did follow the Monday demonstrations in East Germany, and was in touch with Germans in East Germany. I hoped we'd be able to achieve something with our involvement.
In how far has that event influenced your life?
I've worked for the collapse of communism all my life. The Pan-European Picnic strengthened my commitment to a united Europe. Now, 25 years later, it's great to see that the European idea of peace, open borders and freedom has come true.
Walburga Habsburg Douglas is the granddaughter of Austria's last emperor and the youngest daughter of former European parliamentarian Otto von Habsburg. She was active in Germany's Pan-European youth group, and later acted as Secretary General of the International Pan-European Union, only to become the union's chairwoman in 2004.
On August 19, 1989, Habsburg Douglas along with members of Hungary's opposition and a group of Austrians organized the Pan-European Picnic. Walburga Habsburg Douglas, a lawyer, is married to a Swedish count and is a member of Sweden's parliament for the conservative Moderate Party. She is also active in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
Blockade, stalemate, bluff: Just like in classical drama, it is hard to find a way out of the debt crisis, writes DW's Bernd Riegert - even if there is one.
Hamburg is highlighting the port city's historic connections with classical music. Tourists keen to walk in the footsteps of Hamburg's composers can see old musical instruments or letters written by the greats.
The Ehrenbreitstein Fortress in the town of Koblenz on the Rhine in western Germany is launching this year's program with bright lights. The light art can be seen every evening until Easter Monday.
The preliminary rounds for the "Wacken Metal Battle" are currently taking place in 30 countries. The winners will perform at the world's most important heavy metal festival. It's world music - of a different kind.
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|This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2012)|
The Lublin–Brest Offensive (Russian: Люблин‐Брестская наступательная операция, 18 July – 2 August 1944) was a part of the Operation Bagration strategic offensive by the Soviet Red Army to clear the Nazi German forces from the central‐eastern Poland. The offensive was executed by the left (southern) wing of the 1st Belorussian Front and took place during July 1944; it was opposed by the German Army Group North Ukraine and Army Group Centre.
The operation was accompanied by several other offensives, particularly the Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive of the 1st Ukrainian Front in the south; both offensives launched weeks after the start of the successful Operation Bagration to the north which cleared German forces from most of Belarus.
After reaching its target objectives, the offensive momentum carried on as the Soviet forces advanced on Warsaw during August (2 August – 30 September 1944); however Soviet forces did not aid the Polish Warsaw Uprising, which is a matter of some controversy.
On 15 June, Army Group North Ukraine under command of Josef Harpe was composed of the 4th Panzer Army, 1st Panzer Army, and the First Army (Hungary). Army Group Centre had the 2nd Army, 4th Army, 9th Army and 3rd Panzer Army.
The Soviet 1st Belorussian Front under command of Konstantin Rokossovsky included the 8th Guards, 28th, 47th, 61st, 65th, 69th, and 70th (Combined Arms) Аrmies, 2nd Тank Аrmy, 6th and 16th Air Аrmies, 11th Tank Corps, 1st Polish Army, 2nd Guards and 7th Guards Cavalry Corps.
The offensive: securing Lublin and Brest
The Lublin-Brest region was first used as a feint, on 9–10 July drawing German attention away from Soviet offensive preparations at Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive. After the success of that offensive, clearly visible in the first days (from 13 July), Konstantin Rokossovsky’s started a serious push westwards in the Lublin-Brest area as well.
On 18 July five armies of the 1st Belorussian Front (including one Polish army, the Polish First Army) deployed on the front’s left wing south of the Pinsk Marshes, struck and shattered the defenses of Army Group North Ukraine 4th Panzer Army west of Kovel. Within hours, the front’s 2nd Tank Army and several mobile corps began exploiting success to the west with the infantry following in their wake.
Lieutenant General Nikolai Gusev's 47th Army and Colonel General Vasily Chuikov's 8th Guards Army broke through the German defenses, and by 21 July they had reached the eastern banks of the Bug River. The following day, Lieutenant General Semyon Bogdanov's 2nd Tank Army began to advance toward Lublin and the Vistula river, while 11th Tank and 2nd Guards Cavalry Corps spearheaded a northwest push toward Siedlce, with the aim of preventing the retreat of Army Group Center forces which were fighting around the cities of Brest and Bialystok. Nazi concentration camp Maidanek near Lublin was liberated on 22 July. General Bogdanov was wounded on 23 July during the fighting for Lublin; the 2nd Tank Army was taken over by Major General A. I. Radzievsky. Despite the change of command, the Soviet rapid advance continued, as the lead elements of 8th Guards Army and 2nd Tank Army reached the eastern banks of Vistula on 25 July. A day earlier, on 24 July, Konstantin Rokossovsky’s forces took Lublin and advanced westward towards Vistula, south of the Polish capital of Warsaw. The Soviet High Command (Stavka) ordered Radzievsky to advance north toward Warsaw as part of the maneuver designed to prevent the retreat of Army Group Centre.
On 28 July Brest was taken. By 2 August, the 1st Belorussian Front’s left wing armies seized bridgeheads over the Vistula at Magnuszew (Chuikov's 47th Army) and Puławy (Lieutenant General V. la. Kolpakchi's 69th Army). Germans launched several counterattacks on those vital bridgeheads. Army Group Centre's XLVI Panzer Corps conducted counter-attacks from August 8 to reduce the bridgehead. The 19th and Hermann Göring Panzer Divisions mounted several assaults during early August, but the Soviet lines remained firm, managing to retain their positions on the other shore; they would prove crucial during the upcomng Vistula-Oder Offensive that would cross central and western Poland and aim to bring the Soviets within the reach of Berlin.
Further battles of that period included the battle of Studzianki.
The controversy: bridgeheads instead of Warsaw
During the offensive bringing the 1st Belorussian Front’s left wing closer to the Vistula River, the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa) staged an insurrection in Warsaw; the Soviet advance was one of the factors which accelerated the Uprising, as the Poles both counted on Soviet support and wanted to secure their capital independently (as part of the Operation Tempest).
Only days before the uprising begun in Warsaw (on 1 August), the Stavka (Soviet General Headquarters) commanded Rokossovsky to dispatch his 2nd Tank Army in direction of Warsaw’s eastern suburbs (Praga). By 28 July, Radzievsky's army, with three corps alongside, engaged the 73rd Infantry Division and the Hermann Goering Panzer Division 40 kilometres southeast of Warsaw. Radzievsky wanted to secure the routes into Warsaw from the east, while the Germans aimed to prevent that and hold on to Warsaw. The 2nd Tank Army was to be protected on the right flank by a cavalry corps (the 2nd Guards) and the 47th Army, however it reached the region east of Warsaw on 29 July, before the slower 47th Army could provide support; the 47th Army and the 2nd Guards were engaged in the battle around Siedlce, 50 kilometres to the east. Germans counterattacked, in what became known as the Battle of Radzymin, with two panzer corps (XXXIX and IV SS). On 29 July, Radzievsky ordered his 8th Guards Tank Corps (under Lieutenant General A. F. Popov's) and 3rd Tank Corps (under Major General N. D. Vedeneev) to advance northward (northeast of Warsaw) aiming to turn the German defenders' left flank, as the 16th Tank Corps engaged the Germans southeast of Warsaw. 8th Guards Tank Corps was able to fight its way 20 kilometres east of the city, the 3rd Tank Corps however was stopped by a series of successive counterattacks by German armored units under Walter Model.
From 30 July, the Hermann Goering and 19th Panzer Divisions struck the overextended tank corps near Radzymin, north of Wołomin, 15 kilometres northeast of Warsaw. On 2 and 3 August, the 4th Panzer Division and 5th SS Panzergrenadier Division Wiking joined the German counteroffensive. As a result, the 3rd Tank Corps sustained heavy casualties, and the 8th Guards Tank Corps was also weakened. From 30 July through 5 August Germans succeeded in not only stopping the Soviet's advance but in pushing them back, inflicting heavy losses on the frontline Soviet units. By 5 August when the Soviet 47th Army's was able to enter the frontline struggle, the 2nd Tank Army had to be withdrawn. The three rifle corps of 47th Army had to hold the 80-kilometers frontline, stretching from south of Warsaw north to Siedlce. Without armor support, the 47th Army could not resume the offensive. German forces in the area were still holding and their link with the Army Group Centre in the east had been damaged but not cut.
Till 20 August, the 47th Army remained the only major Red Army unit in the vicinity of Warsaw. The Soviets made no attempt to aid the uprising, concentrating on securing Soviet positions east of the river, not providing the insurgents even with artillery support. At the time, the bulk of the 1st Belorussian Front’s centre and right wing were struggling to overcome German defences north of Siedlce on the approaches to the Narew River and, according to Soviet accounts, were unable to support any action to aid Warsaw directly. Western and contemporary Polish accounts claim that Joseph Stalin deliberately withheld support for the Polish Home Army as he wanted the Home Army — supporting the Polish government in exile, a competition to the pro‐Soviet Polish Committee of National Liberation — to be destroyed.
On 20 August the 1st Polish Army of General Zygmunt Berling joined the Soviet 47th Army. Red Army forces north of Warsaw finally advanced across the Bug River on 3 September, reached the Narew River the following day, and secured bridgeheads across that river on 6 September. Lead elements of two Polish divisions from the 1st Army attempted to cross the Vistula into Warsaw on 13 September but made little progress and having sustained heavy casualties were evacuated back across the river ten days later. The Uprising forces capitulated on 2 October; the Soviets would take Warsaw without a major battle during their advance early in 1945. American military historian David M. Glantz notes that while the Soviets could have taken Warsaw and aided the insurgents, from a purely military standpoint this would have required diverting efforts from attempts to secure bridgeheads south and north of Warsaw, involved the Soviets in costly city fighting and gained them less optimal positions for further offensives; this, coupled with political factors meant that the Soviet decision not to aid the Warsaw Uprising was based not only on political, but also on military considerations.
Aftermath - battle for the Narew bridgeheads
The bridgeheads at Serock, the confluence of the Bug and Narew Rivers, had been established by the Soviet 65th Army at the end of the Lublin–Brest Offensive. The German XX Corps of Second Army was deployed in defence.
On October 3 elements of the 3rd and 25th Panzer Divisions, supported by the 252nd Infantry Division, were thrown into an attack to eliminate the 65th Army's positions in the bridgehead. On the southern face, German units reached the bank of the Narew by October 5. The memoirs of General Pavel Batov, 65th Army's commander, describe committing the 44th Guards Rifle Division in an attempt to halt the German advance.
An attack on the northern part of the bridgehead was planned for October 8, involving the 19th Panzer and Wiking divisions but the gains made were eliminated by a Soviet counter-attack on October 14.
- When Titans…
- Brest, Belarus.
- Hinze, p.400
- See also Glantz, Failures of Historiography
- Zaloga, pp.78-79
- See the account of Armin Scheiderbauer in Williams and Rodgers, p.109
- See Batov, В походах и боях, Moscow 1962
- Williams and Rodgers, p.110; Batov gives the date as October 19
- David M. Glantz, The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay.
- David M. Glantz, The Red Army's Lublin‐Brest Offensive and Advance on Warsaw (18 July – 30 September 1944): An Overview and Documentary Survey, The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Volume 19, Issue 2 July 2006, pp. 401–41.
- David M. Glantz, The Failures of Historiography
- Hinze, R. Ostfrontdrama 1944: Ruckzugskampfe der Heersgruppe Mitte
- Zaloga, S. Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre
- Williams, S and Rodgers, D. On the Bloody Road to Berlin, Helion, 2005
- "When Titans Clashed. How the Red Army Stopped Hitler". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Belarus.
- Axis Order of Battle 15 June 1944
- (Russian) Maps of Soviet operations near Warsaw, late July / early August.
- David M. Glantz, The Soviet Conduct of Tactical Maneuver: spearhead of the offensive, 1991. Maps of the Lublin‐Brest operation: pp. 174–75.
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- Who wrote this document? What was his role in the events he describes?
- When was this document written? (At the time of the events described? After the events described took place?) Why might when the document was written matter in what we learn from this document?
- What experiences does Paul Cowan bring to this event? How do they shape his initial view of the issues?
- Who are the picketers? What are they protesting? Why?
- What experiences do the picketers bring to this event? How do these experiences shape their view of the issues?
- In what ways are Paul Cowan and the picketers the same? In what ways are they different?
- How does Paul Cowan's view of the issues change as a result of his experience on this picket line?
- Near the end of the document, Paul Cowan says, "I realized that there was a contradiction in the belief she and I had always shared, that all Jews were mandated by history to be more ethical than other people." What do you think the contradiction is that Cowan has discovered? How might you rewrite the phrase "all Jews were mandated by history to be more ethical than other people" to make it more accurately reflect the reality that Paul Cowan has discovered on the picket line?
- If, as in this case, none of the parties has power (Jews, Hispanics, and blacks are all portrayed as oppressed), is there a way to resolve the issue? Who else (present or not) might have the power to resolve the issue of competing claims? What is their responsibility?
- What other situations or conflicts does this story make you think of? Who has power in those situations? How, if at all, have they been resolved?
How to cite this page
Jewish Women's Archive. "Discussion Questions." (Viewed on March 27, 2015) <http://jwa.org/node/11765/lightbox2>.
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Madura, Western Australia
View of the Madura Pass towards the roadhouse, 2012.
|LGA(s)||Shire of Dundas|
Madura was settled in 1876 as a place to breed quality cavalry horses for the British Indian Army for use in the Northwest Frontier region of India (now part of Pakistan). The horses were shipped from the coast at Eucla. (Cervantes, north of Perth, was also used for breeding.) The site was chosen as it was one of the few with free flowing bore water in the area.
Like other locations in the Nullarbor Plain area, the area consists of little more than a roadhouse, open 6:00am to 9:00pm each day. 2 km west of Madura is a scenic lookout with sweeping views of the Madura Pass across the escarpment and the Roe Plains. Natural blowholes may also be found nearby. The area is used for pastoral purposes, mainly sheep rearing. Surrounding Madura is the Madura Shelf stretching 265 600 square kilometres of predominately sedimentary rock, part of the Bight Basin which has been found to contain crude oil and geothermal gradients.
- Sydney Morning Herald (8 February 2004). "Travel – Madura". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
- Bradshaw, B.E. & Pepper, M.R. (2003). "Madura Shelf". Geoscience Australia. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
- "Polda Basin – Petroleum and Geothermal in South Australia". Primary Industries and Resources SA. 2005–2008. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
- "Bight Basin". Geoscience Australia. 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
- Main Roads, Western Australia (2006) Distance book: distances to towns and localities in Western Australia East Perth, W.A. Main Roads ISBN 0-7309-7668-8
Media related to Madura, Western Australia at Wikimedia Commons
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Marion Hartog, editor of the first Jewish women’s periodical in history, was born in Portsmouth, England, the fourth of twelve children of Joseph Moss (c.1780–c.1840), profession unknown, and Amelia (c.1780–c.1850). Amelia Moss was the granddaughter of the founder of Portsmouth Jewish Congregation and the daughter of Sarah Davids, the first Jewish child born in Portsmouth.
Joseph Moss read widely to his children—Lord Byron, Walter Scott, and Charlotte Brontë, among others—and as girls Marion and her older sister Celia (1819–1873) entertained the family with their own fairy tales. However, when their father discovered his daughters committing their tales to writing, he decided that literary endeavor was unseemly for girls and threatened to burn their books. Nonetheless, after an extended illness prevented him from supporting the family, Marion and Celia Moss wrote and secretly published their first book of poems, Early Efforts (1839). They dedicated the volume to Sir George Staunton, M.P. (1781–1859), and got up a subscription consisting of most of the prominent Jewish families in London.
The following year, encouraged by the success of Early Efforts, the Mosses published a collection of historical romances titled The Romance of Jewish History (1840, 2nd ed. 1843). Dedicated by permission to Edward Bulwer Lytton (1803–1873), this book and its sequel, Tales of Jewish History (1843), adapted the Jewish romance genre—first established by Walter Scott in Ivanhoe—to Anglo-Jewish needs. To the prominent Jews who sponsored them, these tales were entry-tickets to social and political toleration among English Christians. Among the first fictions ever published by Jewish women anywhere in the world, the tales promoted reform of English Jews’ gender and religious practices as well as an early version of political Zionism.
In the early 1840s, Marion and Celia Moss moved to London. In 1845, Marion married her French teacher, Alphonse Hartog, and the new couple, together with Celia, opened a boarding school for girls at the home they shared at 68 Mansell Street, Goodman’s Fields. While teaching, the sisters continued writing poetry and tales for the Jewish Chronicle and the American Jewish periodical The Occident.
In July, 1854, Marion Hartog brought out a prospectus for a new periodical, The Jewish Sabbath Journal: A Penny and Moral Magazine for the Young, which Hartog described as “the dream of more than half my life.” Victorian Jewish women were expected to oversee the religious and moral education of their children, yet many of them lacked any formal religious training. The Jewish Sabbath Journal sought to alleviate the situation in which (as Hartog put it in her prospectus) most Jewish children “receive their education at Christian public schools, or from private Christian teachers.”
Endorsed by no less of an Anglo-Jewish eminence than Abraham Benisch (1814–1878), the editor of the community newspaper, The Jewish Chronicle, the journal was published by subscription, the first number appearing on February 22, 1855. It quickly became popular among Jewish women readers and attracted new female writers in the community. Hartog published stories about women who become successful independent artists. She published sermons—among English Jews at the time an exclusively male genre. She published meditations on mother/child and mother/daughter relationships, and satires on the efforts of conversionists to ensnare Jewish girls.
At first, the journal’s reception seemed positive. The Chief Rabbi of the British Empire Nathan Marcus Adler (1803–1890) approved the project. Hartog’s hopes began to wane, however, as weeks passed with no notice from The Jewish Chronicle. Hartog complained of the silence in an editorial in the Jewish Sabbath Journal. On March 23, 1855, Benisch responded by publishing a review of the Journal in which he accused Hartog of promoting “superstition” and laying down “doctrines which we consider un-Jewish.” As a result, Hartog’s subscriptions fell off and she closed the journal some five months after its inauguration with a poem “On the Death of My Beloved Child.”
In the fifty years that followed, Hartog published only sporadically, instead dedicating herself to running various schools. After 1857, when Celia Moss married a local shohet, Edward Levetus, and moved to Birmingham, Hartog ran the schools herself. Several of Hartog’s children, who included Numa (1846–1869), Marcus, Helena, Cecile and Philip (1864–1947), became well known as scientists and artists. Numa became the first Jewish Senior Wrangler at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1869. His success prompted passage of the University Tests Act and his death at the age of twenty-three was seen as a community tragedy.
Marion Hartog died at her home at 22 Brondesbury Villas, Kilburn, on October 29, 1907 at the age of eighty-six.
Advertisement. Jewish Chronicle, 12 December 1845; Galchinsky, Michael. The Origin of the Modern Jewish Woman Writer: Romance and Reform in Victorian England. Detroit: 1996; Hartog, Mabel. Philip Hartog: A Memoir. London: 1949; Hartog, Marion, ed. The Jewish Sabbath Journal. No. 1–11. February–June, 1855. Manuscript Library, University College London; “Jewish Women’s Work in Philanthropy and Education.” Jewish Chronicle (June 13, 1902); “Marion Hartog: From a Correspondent.” Jewish Chronicle (August 23, 1895); Moss, Celia and Marion. Early Efforts. A Volume of Poems by the Misses Moss, of the Hebrew Nation. Aged 18 and 16. London: 1839; Moss, Celia and Marion. The Romance of Jewish History. 3 vols. 2nd ed. London: 1843; Moss, Celia and Marion. Tales of Jewish History. 3 vols. London: 1843; Obituary, “Madame Alphonse Hartog,” Jewish Chronicle (November 1, 1907); “Romance of Jewish History” MS 160, AJ 167/1–2, Hartley Library Special Collections, University of Southampton.
How to cite this page
Galchinsky, Michael. "Marion Hartog." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on March 26, 2015) <http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/hartog-marion>.
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This article was published in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 6, (MUP), 1976
William Kyffin Thomas is a minor entry in this article
Robert Thomas (1781-1860), newspaper proprietor, was born in November 1781 on a farm, Rhantregynwen, at Llanymynech, on the border of Shropshire, England, and Montgomeryshire, Wales. At 21 he established a printing, bookselling and law stationery business in Fleet Street, London. On 18 January 1818 he married Mary Harris (1787-1875) at Southampton; they had seven children. Mary wrote poetry some of which was distributed among her friends as 'Serious Poems' in 1831.
Attracted by Edward Gibbon Wakefield's ideas, in 1836 Thomas bought 134 acres (54 ha) of land in the proposed province of South Australia for £81. On 18 June, with his friend George Stevenson as editor, he printed in London the first number of the South Australian Gazette and Colonial Register. Preceded by their eldest son Robert, who was on Colonel William Light's staff in the Cygnet, Thomas and his family embarked in the Africaine and reached Holdfast Bay on 10 November. He printed Governor (Sir) John Hindmarsh's proclamation of the province of 28 December. After living for a time in tents and a rush hut, in March 1837 he bought nine more prime town lots, moved to Hindley Street and established a general store, stationery and printing business. Using a Stanhope hand press Stevenson and the Thomas family produced on 3 June the first colonial edition of the newspaper, announcing a firmly independent policy; with much difficulty because of the death of a compositor and staff shortages, it became a weekly by 1838. Already Thomas, who was making bricks on his country sections, was 'perfectly infatuated with this country', but his wife was very homesick. They befriended the Aboriginals, witnessed a corroboree and planned to print a native dictionary. In 1838 they issued the South Australian Church Hymn Book, arranged by Rev. Charles Howard.
Still short-handed, Robert Thomas & Co. published in 1839-42 the first four copies of the Royal South Australian Almanac. In 1839 they announced a further newspaper, the Port Lincoln Herald and South Australian Commercial Advertiser, although their first venture, from 22 June called the South Australian Register, had not yet succeeded in paying its way. In 1840 Thomas joined the Literary & Scientific Association and Mechanics' Institute and the Association For The Prosecution of Felons. That year the paper's circulation reached 900 and Thomas, with a staff of twenty-one, bought two new Columbian presses and paid £800 for the rival Adelaide Chronicle and South Australian Advertiser. The Register, critical of Governor George Gawler's economic policies, in September strongly attacked him again for ordering the execution without trial of two Aboriginals suspected of murdering some settlers. As a result, on 11 November the firm lost all government business, worth about £1650 a year, to the fiercely competitive Southern Australian; Thomas claimed that he had been authorized by the British government to do their printing, but he had no written proof. A visit to England to protest was unsuccessful and in 1842 he returned to Adelaide, became insolvent and sold the Register to James Allen for £600. In May The Adelaide Chronicle and South Australian Literary Record had ceased to appear. In January 1841 he had opened a new commercial exchange and reading room.
In 1845-52 Thomas was an inspector of weights and measures for the government. On 1 July 1860, aged 78, he died of congestion of the lungs in his home, Rhantregwnwyn Cottage, Hindley Street. Governor Sir George Grey had described him as an 'earnest, able, energetic pioneer … of great natural ability and singular force of character'. He was survived by three sons and two daughters and by his wife, whose valuable account of settlement, the Diary and Letters of Mary Thomas 1832-1866 was edited and published by her grandson E. K. Thomas in 1915. His estate was sworn for probate at £2000.
His second son William Kyffin was born on 4 November 1821 in London and educated at a Rickmansworth boarding-school before being apprenticed to Leighton and Murphy, Fleet Street printers, for six months. During the voyage to South Australia he had scarlet fever but reached Kangaroo Island on his fifteenth birthday and helped his father print the early issues of his newspaper. In 1837-42 as overseer of the printing office he was 'very useful and industrious'. In 1843-53 he farmed at Nailsworth, spending several months at the Victorian goldfields in 1852. On 24 May 1853 with Anthony Forster, E. W. Andrews and Joseph Fisher and others he bought the daily South Australian Register, and its weekly counterpart, The Adelaide Observer. Next year the paper was moved to Grenfell Street and William resumed sole control of the printing department which was converted to steam; a four-feeder Hoe press was added in 1870. He continued as a principal proprietor of W. K. Thomas & Co. publishing the Register, The Adelaide Observer and the Evening Journal for the next eight years.
In 1863 William had been an elected councillor for Grey Ward and in 1864 failed to become mayor of Adelaide; he was a lieutenant in the First Adelaide Rifles and in 1866 became a justice of the peace. He was a quiet genial family man who moved to Glenelg in 1875 for his health. One of the founding members of the Flinders Street Baptist Church, he was its secretary for many years. He died of heart disease and dropsy on 4 July 1878, and was buried in the West Terrace cemetery, survived by his wife Mary Jane, née Good, six daughters and three sons. His estate was sworn for probate at £8000.
Robert Kyffin, eldest son of William Kyffin and Mary Thomas, was born on 19 August 1851 at Nailsworth near Adelaide; he was educated at John Lorenzo Young's Adelaide Educational Institution before joining the staff of the family paper in 1869. He worked first in the printing department and learned stenography on the reporting staff, concurrently attending Union College, which became the University of Adelaide in 1876. On 6 January he married Amelia Bowen; they had four daughters and three sons. In 1877 he became the principal joint proprietor of the South Australian Register, and as chief of staff he also edited the Adelaide Observer. A parliamentary reporter, he was in charge of the Hansard branch until 1882, when he became general manager of the South Australian Register which became the Register in 1901.
An ardent Freemason and a justice of the peace, Robert was president of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, South Australian Branch, in 1900-03, and of the Adelaide Chamber of Commerce in 1906-07. He visited England in 1884, 1902 and 1909 when he was elected chairman of the overseas delegates to the Imperial Press Conference in London; on 31 January 1910 he was knighted for his work at the conference. An Anglican, he played a leading role in many charitable and cultural organizations, and was responsible for a collection in the Adelaide Art Gallery illustrating the art of newspaper sketching.
On 13 June 1910 Sir Robert died of stomach cancer in his home, Ardington, North Adelaide. He was buried in the North Road cemetery and survived by his wife (d.1922), three sons and four daughters, one of whom, Nora, was a proficient violinist. His estate was sworn for probate at £38,202. His sons Reginald Kyffin (d.1914) and Geoffrey Kyffin carried on their father's share in W. K. Thomas & Co. with John Finlayson, Sir William Sowden and their uncle Evan Kyffin Thomas. In 1893 the Australasian edition of the Review of Reviews had said 'The Register … always … held itself aloof from … political parties … it has given to some of the dominant politicians of the day the suggestions … for many of their edicts. It has ever been broadly liberal … a fighting paper from the beginning'.
Suzanne Edgar and S. Cockburn, 'Thomas, William Kyffin (1821–1878)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/thomas-william-kyffin-4940/text7809, published first in hardcopy 1976, accessed online 28 March 2015.
This article has been amended since its original publication. View Original
This article was first published in hardcopy in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 6, (MUP), 1976
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General Maurice Gamelin (1936)
|Birth name||Maurice Gustave Gamelin|
20 September 1872|
|Died||18 April 1958
|Years of service||1893–1940|
Maurice Gustave Gamelin (20 September 1872 – 18 April 1958) was a French general. Gamelin is remembered for his unsuccessful command (until 17 May 1940) of the French military during the Battle of France (10 May - 22 June 1940) and his steadfast defense of republican values.
The Commander-in-chief of the French armed forces in World War II, Gamelin was viewed as a man with significant intellectual ability. He was respected, even in Germany, for his intelligence and "subtle mind", though he was viewed by some German generals as stiff and predictable. Despite this, and his competent service in World War I, his command of the French armies during the critical days of May 1940 proved to be disastrous. Historian and journalist William L. Shirer presented the view that Gamelin used World War I methods to fight World War II, but with less vigor and slower response.
Gamelin served with distinction under Joseph Joffre (1852—1931) in World War I. He is often credited with being responsible for devising the outline of the French counter-attack in 1914 which led to victory during the First Battle of the Marne. In 1933 Gamelin rose to command the French Army and oversaw a modernization and mechanization program, including the completion of the Maginot Line defenses.
Édouard Daladier supported Gamelin throughout his career due to his refusal to allow politics to play a part in military planning and promotion, and his commitment to the republican model of government—not a trivial concern at a time when Communists on the left and Royalists and Fascists on the right were openly advocating regime change in France.
Gamelin's father, Zéphyrin, fought in the Battle of Solferino in 1859. From an early age Gamelin showed potential as a soldier, growing up in a generation seeking revenge on Germany for their annexation of Alsace Lorraine at the end of the Franco-Prussian War.
He began in the French tirailleurs with the 3rd Regiment based in Tunisia. He then joined the topographic brigade. When Gamelin came back to Paris in 1897, he entered the prestigious Ecole Superieure de Guerre and finished second of his class of about eighty of the best future officers in the French Army. Charles Lanrezac, then the commander-in-second of the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre, and later general in the early days of the World War I, noted Gamelin as an intelligent, cultivated and industrious young officer, bound to earn higher functions in the future. Gamelin joined the staff of the 15th Army Corps before commanding a company at the 15th battalion of the Chasseurs Alpins in 1904. He received the applause of his superiors for his diligence at maneouver.
He published Philosophical Study on the Art of War in 1906 which his critics praised as they anticipated him becoming one of the military thinkers in the near future and then became an attaché to the French general Joseph Joffre (a future Marshal of France) as he led the French forces during World War I. This position had been obtained with the help of Ferdinand Foch (also a future Marshal of France, as he led the Allied Forces to victory on the Western Front in 1918). These networks provided Gamelin with a solid knowledge in strategic and tactical warfare.
In 1911, Gamelin was given command of the 11th battalion of the Chasseurs Alpins in Annecy. However, in March 1914 he joined Joffre's general staff (1914-18 called Grand Quartier Général). At the start of the war, Gamelin helped draft the plans that led to the victory at the Battle of the Marne. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and fought in Alsace on the Linge and later on the Somme. He became colonel in April 1916 and with good results on the battlefield was further promoted within eight months to the rank of brigadier general. He commanded the French 11th Infantry Division from April 1917 until the end of the war. In the region of Noyon, he manifested sophisticated tactical skills yet again by gaining ground without surrendering lives needlessly (which was atypical then, see Attaque à outrance).
From 1919 to 1924, Gamelin was the head of the military mission in Brazil. He then commanded the French Army in the Levant, now Syria and the Lebanon. He was the commander of the 30th military region in Nancy from 1919 to 1931, as he was named head of the general staff of the French Armies. He prepared France's military until the beginning of the Second World War, although challenged by drastic cuts in funding (→ Great Depression in France) and by the political inertia regarding the rearmament of Germany and later the Third Reich, which was intensified after the end of the Allied occupation of the Rhineland and its remilitarization. At the outbreak of the War in September 1939, Gamelin was considered one of the best commanding generals in Europe, and was respected even among the Wehrmacht.
Role in World War II
When war was declared in 1939, Gamelin was France's commander in chief. France saw little action during the Phoney War, apart from a few French divisions crossing the German border in the Saar Offensive, who travelled a mere 8 km (5.0 mi). They stopped even before reaching Germany's unfinished Siegfried Line. According to General Siegfried Westphal, a German staff officer on the Western Front, if France had attacked in September 1939 German forces could not have held out for more than one or two weeks. Gamelin ordered his troops back behind the Maginot Line, but only after telling France's ally, Poland, that France had broken the Siegfried Line and that help was on its way. Gamelin's long-term strategy was to wait until France had fully rearmed and for the British and French armies to build up their forces, even though this would mean waiting until 1941. He prohibited any bombing of the industrial areas of the Ruhr, in case the Germans retaliated.
Gamelin's vision for France's defence was based upon a static defense along the Franco-German border, which was reinforced by the Maginot Line. However, the Maginot Line was only 87 mi (140 km) long and did not extend along the Belgian frontier. During the winter of 1939 to 1940, which was one of the coldest of the 20th century, work on the extension to the Maginot Line along the Belgian frontier was slow and not of the same quality as the original defences. Gamelin, along with many other members of the French High Command, saw the Ardennes as impenetrable and chose to defend it with only ten reserve divisions and few fortifications. Most of the French army was posted against the north of the Belgian frontier. According to General von Manteuffel, the German Panzer commander, France had more and better tanks than Germany, but chose to disperse them.
The defensive approach of the Maginot Line became out of step with Gamelin's own views. He favoured an aggressive advance northward into Belgium and the Netherlands to meet the attacking German forces—as far removed from French territory as possible. This strategy, known as the Dyle Plan, fitted with Belgian defensive plans and also with British objectives. Gamelin committed much of the motorized forces of the French Army and the entire British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to this strategy. Such a strategy also meant that the most of the French Army would leave its one-year-old prepared defensive positions in northern France to be committed to joining battle on an unknown Belgian defensive line.
Despite reports of the build-up of German forces, and even knowing the date of the planned German attack, Gamelin did nothing, stating that he would "await events". When the Germans attacked, Gamelin insisted on moving 40 of his best divisions, including the BEF, northwards to conform to the Dyle Plan. The French mobilisation had called up many essential workers, which disrupted vital French industries in the first weeks of the campaign.
In the first few days of the Battle of Belgium, much of the Allied air forces' equipment was attacked while still on the ground. The rest of the air support was concentrated on the French advance, rather than attacking the exposed 150 km (93 mi) column supplying the German advance. Quickly, the French and the British became fearful of being outflanked and they withdrew from the defensive lines drawn up across Belgium. They did not pull back fast enough to prevent them being outflanked by the German Panzer divisions.
The German wing that attacked further south was able to cross the River Meuse faster than anticipated, aided by heavy Luftwaffe aerial bombardment. Although almost all the crossings over the Meuse were destroyed by the French, one weir 60 km (37 mi) north of Sedan had been left intact and was only lightly defended. It was thus quickly captured and exploited by the Germans. Meanwhile, French guns were ordered to limit their firing in case they ran out of ammunition. On this front, Colonel-General Heinz Guderian disobeyed orders and forged ahead. Gamelin withdrew forces in this area so that they could defend Paris, thinking this was the Germans' objective, rather than the coast.
Believing that he had been betrayed rather than blaming his own strategy, Gamelin then sacked twenty of his front line commanders.
Further north, Major-General Erwin Rommel also kept advancing quickly, against orders. He reached the sea to the west of the British Expeditionary Force, trapping the forces that had been sent into the Low Countries around Arras and Dunkirk. In moving from France to Belgium and then back to France, a substantial amount of the armour was lost due to mechanical failure. The French and British could no longer launch a counterattack spearheaded by tanks and thus break out of encirclement. The speed of this advance, German air supremacy, the inability of the British and French to successfully counter-attack, and suspicions of complicity undermined the overall Allied position to such a degree that Britain abandoned the conflict on the continent. 338,226 men (including 120,000 French soldiers) withdrew across the English Channel during the Dunkirk evacuation. A second British Expeditionary Force, due to land in Normandy in mid-June, was cancelled.
The Dutch surrendered within five days of being attacked, the Belgians in a 18 days ("campagne des 18 jours"), and the French were left with only a rump of their former army to defend their nation. Gamelin was removed from his post on 18 May 1940 by Paul Reynaud, who had replaced Édouard Daladier as Prime Minister in March. The 68 year-old Gamelin was replaced by the 73 year-old Maxime Weygand, who crucially delayed planned counter-attacks prior to eventually launching them.
After the fall of France
Gamelin was both preceded and succeeded as generalissimo by Maxime Weygand. During the Vichy regime, Gamelin was arrested and unsuccessfully tried for treason along with other important political and military figures of the Third Republic (Édouard Daladier, Guy La Chambre, Léon Blum, and Robert Jacomet) during the Riom Trial. At this trial, Gamelin refused to answer the charges against him, instead maintaining a dignified silence. Imprisoned by the Vichy regime in Fort du Portalet in the Pyrenees, he was later deported by Germans to the Itter Castle in North Tyrol with a few other French high officials. He was freed from the castle after the Battle for Castle Itter. After the war, he published his memoirs, titled Servir....
Gamelin died in Paris in April 1958 at the age of 85.
- Alexander, Martin S. (1 November 2003). The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence, 1933-1940. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-52429-2. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- William L. Shirer The Collapse of the Third Republic 1969
- The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence 1933–1940
- Alexander, Martin S. (1991). "Maurice Gamelin and the defeat of France, 1939–40". In Bond, Brian. Fallen Stars. Eleven Studies of Twentieth Century Military Disaster. London: Brassey's. ISBN 0-08-040717-X.
- ——— (1992). The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence, 1933–1940. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37234-8. (Paperback ed. 2002 and 2003)
- Gamelin, Maurice (1946). Servir. Paris: Plon.
- Tissier, Pierre (1942). The Riom Trial. London: G. G. Harrap.
- L'Ouest-Eclair 1935-01-19 "Le général Gamelin succède au général Weygand comme généralissime tout en restant chef d'état-maior général". Includes a short bio.
| 16
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2nd Battalion (Australia)
Officers from the 2nd Battalion at Giza, December 1914
|Size||~1,000 men[Note 1]|
|Part of||1st Brigade
|Nickname||City of Newcastle Regiment|
|Motto||Nulli Secundus (Second To None)|
|Colours||Purple over Green|
|Engagements||Second World War|
|Unit Colour Patch|
The 2nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. It was initially raised for service during the First World War as part the Australian Imperial Force and saw action at Gallipoli before being sent to the Western Front in mid-1916, where it spent the next two-and-a-half years taking part in the fighting in the trenches of France and Belgium. Following the conclusion of hostilities, the battalion was disbanded in early 1919 as part of the demobilisation process.
In 1921, the battalion was re-raised as a part-time unit of the Citizens Forces based in Newcastle, New South Wales, drawing lineage from a number of previously existing infantry units. They remained in existence until 1929 when, due to austerity measures during the Great Depression and manpower shortages, the battalion was amalgamated with two other infantry battalions over the course of a number of re-organisations. It was re-formed in 1939 and undertook garrison duty in Australia during the Second World War until 1943 when it was merged once again.
Following the end of the war, the 2nd Battalion was re-raised as part of the Citizens Military Force in 1948. In 1960, it was reduced to a company-level formation but was re-formed as a battalion of the Royal New South Wales Regiment in 1965. It remained on the Australian order of battle until 1987 when it was amalgamated with the 17th Battalion, to form the 2nd/17th Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment, a unit which remains part of the Australian Army Reserve today.
First World War
Formation and training
The 2nd Battalion was raised at Randwick, New South Wales, in August 1914 as part of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), which was formed from volunteers for overseas service shortly after the outbreak of the First World War. Drawing the majority of its personnel from the Maitland, Newcastle and Hunter Valley regions of the state of New South Wales, the battalion formed part of the 1st Brigade and, along with the 1st, 3rd and 4th Battalions, it was one of the first infantry units raised by Australia following its entry into the war. Upon formation, the battalion was established with a complement of over 1,000 men organised into a headquarters, a machine-gun section of two heavy Maxim medium machine-guns, and eight rifle companies, each consisting of three officers and 117 other ranks. The battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Braund, a citizen soldier and Member of Parliament in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, who held the seat of Armidale.
The physical standards under which the first contingent of the AIF was recruited were very strict, nevertheless by the end of August over 20,000 men had been recruited into one infantry division—the 1st Division—and one light horse brigade, the 1st Light Horse Brigade. Following a brief period of training in Australia, the force set sail for the Middle East, assembling off Albany, Western Australia, in early November 1914 before leaving Australian waters, with the 2nd Battalion embarked upon the HMAT Suffolk.
Initially it had been planned that the Australians would be sent to the United Kingdom, where they would undertake further training prior to being sent to the Western Front in France and Belgium. However, the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war on Germany's side on 29 October meant that the strategically vital Suez Canal was threatened, and as a result of this and overcrowding in training grounds in the United Kingdom, upon the convoy reaching the Suez at the end of November, plans for the use of the Australian force were changed and they were disembarked in Egypt instead.
The 2nd Battalion arrived in Egypt on 2 December. The following month, it undertook further training along with the rest of the 1st Division. The battalion was also re-organised into four companies, as the Australian Army converted to the new battalion structure that had been developed by the British Army. Although the battalion's authorised strength remained the same, the eight companies were merged into four, each consisting of six officers and 221 other ranks.
In February 1915, Ottoman Empire forces attacked the Suez Canal, and although some units of the 1st Division were put into the line,[Note 2] the 2nd Battalion was not required, and in the end the attack was turned back mainly by Indian units. Later, in an effort to open shipping lanes to the Russians and also knock the Turks out of the war, the British high command decided to land a force on the Gallipoli peninsula near the Dardanelles using mainly British, French and Indian troops along with the Australians and New Zealanders.
During the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, the 2nd Battalion, under Braund's command, came ashore in the second and third waves, landing a total of 31 officers and 937 other ranks. Upon landing, the 2nd Battalion dispatched two companies, 'A' and 'D' to assist the 3rd Brigade who were pushing inland towards a high feature known as "Baby 700", which overlooked the beachhead. One of the 2nd Battalion's platoons, under Lieutenant Leslie Morshead, advanced further than any other Australian unit, making it to the slopes of Baby 700, before a determined counter-attack by Ottoman forces drove them back in the afternoon.
Meanwhile, the battalion's other two companies, 'B' and 'C', had been held back in reserve. In the early afternoon, Braund led them up the steep terrain under fire to the vital junction between two positions known as "Walker's Ridge" and "Russell's Top". The battalion proceeded to hold this position until reinforcements arrived from the Wellington Battalion two days later, at which time the 2nd Battalion undertook a bayonet charge which cleared the crest of Russell's Top. A determined enemy counter-attack forced them back to the junction where they remained until 28 April when they were ordered into reserve on the beach.
In early May, part of the battalion was sent to reinforce the 3rd Battalion. At around midnight on the night of 3/4 May, the 2nd Battalion's commanding officer, Braund, who was partially deaf, was accidentally killed as he attempted to visit 1st Brigade headquarters after failing to hear a challenge from a sentry, who shot him believing that he was an enemy soldier. Following his burial, the battalion second-in-command, Robert Scobie, was promoted to lieutenant colonel and took over as commanding officer.
Following the initial establishment of the beachhead, the campaign moved into a second phase as the Australians began work to consolidate and slowly expand their position around the lodgement. During this time, the fighting at Anzac evolved into largely static trench warfare. In mid-May, however, the Turks decided to launch an attack on Anzac. This began late on 18 May with the heaviest artillery bombardment of the campaign to that point, during which the 2nd Battalion's orderly room, located on "MacLaurin's Hill", was hit. The assault began the following day, during which the 2nd Battalion, established around a position known as the "Pimple", was attacked by elements of the Ottoman 48th Regiment who poured into their forward positions through "Owen's Gulley", which rose as a re-entrant between the 2nd Battalion's position and that of 3rd Battalion which was on their left at the "Jolly". At risk of having the line split in two and enduring heavy attack in their sap head, the 2nd called for reinforcements which came in the shape of artillerymen from the 8th Battery, who were pressed into the line as infantrymen. With only limited machine-guns and with bad light hindering the supporting artillery, the job of turning back the Turkish assault fell to the riflemen and by maintaining strict fire discipline, great effect was achieved. By 24 May, the attack had been decisively defeated and a brief truce was called for both sides to bury the dead. Following this, the Ottoman forces around Anzac adopted a defensive posture. It was during this time, that one of the 2nd Battalion's soldiers, Lance Corporal (later Sergeant) William Beech, invented the periscope rifle.
In early August, in order to create a diversion to draw Ottoman reserves away from a major attack at Hill 971, which had been conceived as part of an attempt to break the stalemate that had developed around the beachhead, the 1st Brigade conducted an attack at Lone Pine. The 2nd Battalion was chosen to take part in the initial assault. After gaining possession of the main enemy line, the Australians were subjected to a series of determined counter-attacks which would last the next three days, which, although successfully repulsed, proved very costly for the Australians. The 2nd Battalion suffered considerably. Having started the action with 22 officers and 560 other ranks, they lost 21 officers and 409 other ranks killed or wounded. Among those killed was its commanding officer, Scobie, who was shot dead while attempting to repulse a counter-attack on 7 August. In Scobie's place, the battalion second-in-command, Major Arthur Stevens, who had been a second lieutenant less than 12 months before, took over as temporary commander.
Elsewhere, the main offensive which had been launched at Hill 971 and Sari Bair, and the fresh landings that had taken place at Suvla Bay, also faltered. Ultimately, the August Offensive, of which the fighting at Lone Pine had been a part, failed to deliver the Sari Bair heights to the British Empire forces and their allies, nor did it break the deadlock. Following this, stalemate returned to the peninsula during September and October, and although small skirmishes continued, the Australians were mainly involved in defensive actions. As a result of the setback, many of the strategic goals that had been the basis of the campaign were abandoned and as a bitter winter set-in in November, there was much debate among the British high command about the utility of continuing the campaign. In the intervening months, some personnel had been shifted away from Gallipoli as other the situation in other theatres became more relevant, and in late November, Lord Kitchener toured the peninsula. Finally, on 8 December, the order to begin the evacuation was given. The evacuation, which has been described "more brilliantly conducted ... than any other phase of the campaign", took place in stages, and with the maintenance of secrecy a key consideration, a series of "ruses" were used to conceal the withdrawal. Each unit left in drafts, maintaining a presence along the line until the very end. Finally, just before dawn on 20 December, the evacuation was complete. A small element from the 2nd Battalion was among the last Australian troops to leave, with a group of 64 men remaining in possession of the "Black Hand" position until 2:50 am on the final morning.
Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli, the AIF returned to Egypt where they underwent a period of re-organisation. Part of this saw the influx of large numbers of reinforcements and the expansion of the AIF. The 2nd Division had been formed in July 1915, and part of this had been dispatched to Gallipoli in the later stages of the campaign, but the large increase in volunteers in Australia meant that further plans for expansion could take place. The 3rd Division was raised in Australia, while two new divisions, the 4th and 5th Divisions, were raised in Egypt from reinforcements in holding depots and experienced cadre personnel which were drawn from the infantry battalions of the 1st Division. In this regard, the 1st Brigade helped raise the 14th Brigade, with personnel from the 2nd Battalion being transferred to the 54th Battalion; the split occurring while the battalion was at Tel el Kebir on 14 February. They were quickly brought up to full strength and training began shortly afterwards.
Earlier in the month, Stevens was promoted to lieutenant colonel and placed in substantive command of the battalion; he would subsequently lead them through to November 1916. Around this time, the units of the 1st Division, of which the 2nd Battalion was a part, became part of the larger I Anzac Corps, and in early March, this corps embarked for France – the 2nd Battalion leaving from Alexandria on the SS Ivernia – where they were to take part in the fighting on the European battlefield.
After being landed in Marseilles, they proceeded north by railway to staging areas near Hazebrouck. Shortly afterwards, on 7 April, the units of I Anzac Corps were assigned to a "quiet" sector of the line near Armentieres to gain experience of trench warfare. Due to concerns about a German attack, almost immediately the Australians set to work to improve the defences around their position. It had been hoped by the high command to initially keep the Australian presence a secret in order to gain some advantage from it, however, on 23 April it became apparent that the Germans had become aware of their arrival when a signal lamp flashed a message in Morse code from the trench opposite the 2nd Battalion's position stating, "Australians go home". To this, the Australians, despite orders against responding, replied matter-of-factly, "Why?"
In June, during a brief period away from the line in billets, the battalion, along with the rest of the 1st Brigade, was reviewed by the Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes near Fleurbaix. Following this, although several units from I Anzac Corps took part in a number of raids against the German line during late June and early July, the 2nd Battalion was not involved and as such, apart from experiencing some enemy shelling, the 2nd Battalion's first significant action came at Pozières in July 1916. The battalion entered the line on the night of 19/20 July as the 1st was sent forward to relieve the British 68th Brigade along with the 3rd Brigade; just after midnight the 2nd Battalion, after an approach march over which they had endured gas attack, arrived at its position opposite the south-western side of the village.
On 23 July, following an intense artillery barrage, the attack began. Leaving their form-up point near the "Chalk Pit", the 2nd Battalion, which had been allocated the position of the left forward battalion in the assault with the 1st Battalion on their right and the 4th Battalion following them up, moved out into no man's land just after midnight. A short time afterwards a flare was fired from the German lines followed by sporadic rifle and machine-gun fire, which was directed somewhere away from the battalion's axis-of-advance. As they advanced over the broken ground, suddenly a sentry called out a challenge and the entire battalion froze, but when firing broke out it became clear that it was directed away to their right towards the 3rd Brigade who were advancing over open ground. Advancing beneath the supporting barrage, under the direction of their officers whose job it was to ensure that they did not get ahead of the creeping artillery, the battalion probed forward trying to locate the enemy defences, finally finding an abandoned trench located amongst a group of tree stumps. After striking the railway, they began to dig-in just beyond it to secure the left flank, as the 3rd and 4th Battalions passed between them and advanced to secure the brigade's front along the line of the main Bapaume road. Following this, the 2nd Battalion maintained the left-most position on the brigade line, with its pits curling around the left flank and folding in behind the 4th Battalion's position.
The Germans put in a determined counter-attack at dawn with a whole battalion, which was turned back after a stiff fight. That night, reinforcements were brought up from the 2nd Brigade, and early in the morning on 24 July the Germans opened up with a devastating artillery barrage. On 25 July, the men of the 2nd Battalion, having suffered terribly in the open trenches, were relieved by the 7th Battalion. During the operations around Pozières, the battalion lost 10 officers and 500 men killed or wounded.
After this, they were sent to Pernois for rest and re-organisation, and after being brought back up to about two-thirds strength, the 2nd Battalion's next involvement in the fighting came around Mouquet Farm when they were briefly put into the line on 18/19 August to provide reinforcement, before being quickly relieved a few days later. In early September, I Anzac Corps was transferred from the Somme region to Ypres, in Belgium, swapping with the Canadians for a rest. Taking up a position north of the Ypres–Commines canal, the battalions of the 1st Division were placed in the centre of the line between those of the 4th, on the right to the south, and the 2nd on the left, to the north. The sector was a relatively quiet one, although not without its dangers due to constant mortar attacks, sniping, and the need to maintain patrols in no man's land. Nevertheless, duties in this time were focused mainly upon maintaining a defensive presence in the line and rebuilding the defences. In addition, a number of small-scale raids were also undertaken in an effort to draw some attention away from the fighting that was occurring on the Somme.
On 6 October, in concert with three parties from the 1st Battalion, the 2nd carried out a minor raid on a German position to the north-east of a position known as "The Bluff" in order to gain intelligence. After encountering a German patrol, they were forced to abandon their attempt, however, a short time later, one of their own patrols captured a German soldier from the 414th Infantry Regiment in no man's land. The next week, on 12 October, just after 6:00 pm a small party moved out into no man's land to raid another German position near The Bluff. After being spotted, they were subjected to several grenade attacks, forcing them to retire. Their covering force was already in position, however, and so a number of the attacking force joined them and together, at 6:30 pm, after a box barrage by the artillery had cut the wire in front of the German position, they entered it. Killing seven Germans, they overcame the enemy resistance and brought back two defenders as prisoners. On the way back, several of their own wounded became lost, although all except one of these men were later recovered. The other man, one of the officers, was later found to have died of his wounds. In total the raid had cost the battalion two killed and seven wounded.
After this, the units of I Anzac Corps returned to the Somme, to relieve units of the Fourth Army, which had managed to push their lines to a position just below the Bapaume heights throughout September. The 2nd Battalion was not involved in any major actions during this time, although elements from the 1st Brigade—specifically the 1st Battalion with support from the 3rd—put in an attack on a salient that had developed in the front line north of Gueudecourt, which failed amid exceptionally muddy conditions.
Winter began to set in at this point, and even though combat operations all but ceased during this time, the battalion endured considerable hardships amid snow and rain, in a sector that has been described as "the worst ... of the sodden front". For a brief period during December, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey commanded the battalion before taking over as acting commander of the 1st Brigade. During this time, the battalion was reorganised as part of a wider-Army restructure that resulted in an attempt to increase the firepower of the each platoon. Earlier in the year, the battalion machine-gun section had been deleted and replaced by a single Lewis gun held within each company; by end of the year this had been increased to one Lewis per platoon.
As 1917 began with the Allies making fresh plans, the Germans, finding themselves outnumbered and needing to shorten their lines, began a skilful staged withdrawal beginning in February and ending in April. Falling back up to 31 miles (50 km) in some places, they took up positions along a series of heavily fortified, purpose-built strong-points which the Allies subsequently named the "Hindenburg Line", which, due to the reduced frontage, enabled them to free up some 13 divisions of reserves. Following up the Germans, the Allies advanced towards this line, finding that the Germans had adopted a scorched earth policy as they had moved back; the result of this was that in order to establish their own lines, the Allies had to undertake significant construction work.
Due to the shifting front line, the 2nd Battalion's first major engagement of 1917 did not come until 9 April when, on the periphery of the Arras offensive, they took part in an attack on Hermies, one of the outpost villages of the Hindenburg Line. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Milligan, who had taken over on 17 March, the battalion had departed Haplincourt at 7:30 pm the previous evening and marched to their form-up point. The plan was to attack with the battalion's four companies advancing side-by-side from the north-east to attack from behind the German defences, sweeping down on the village like a fan with the left-most company providing flank protection and establishing a series of posts to stop the garrison from escaping while the two centre and the right-most companies took the village. At the same time, two companies from the 3rd Battalion would attack the German main defensive position from the south-west.
In the end, the Australians were detected while waiting to step off and, after being illuminated by flares and taking fire from a German picquet, hastily launched the attack. After overcoming this, the left-centre company, having lost all of their officers, lost their formation and had to be re-organised before the attack on the eastern side of the village could continue. The two companies passed through hedges and the ruined buildings, clearing the outskirts of the village with little resistance. The left-most company then began its task of establishing outposts to the east. At the same time, on the right, the right-most company had advanced to the Doignes–Hermies road when they had begun to take fire. Overcoming this and skirting a wire obstacle, they began moving towards the rear of the German main defence line. At this point, they came under fire from a low hill on the western outskirts of the village, which took them in the flank and pinned them on its slope. In the darkness, the location of the enemy machine-gun could not be ascertained initially. The Australians remained fixed there for almost an hour-and-a-half before members of the right centre company, who had avoided most of the German resistance, were able to locate it and destroy it from the rear just before dawn. The two centre companies were then able to enter the village proper, forcing large numbers of the garrison to try to escape to the north-east, where they were taken prisoner in large numbers. Here the left-most company had been establishing a number of posts in the open fields. Most of these were established with minimal resistance, however, one platoon became heavily engaged by a machine-gun positioned near a sandpit on the other side of a road. A small group of men crossed the road and attempted to provide covering fire for the platoon. Amongst this group was Private Bede Kenny who, under heavy fire, rushed the enemy position and destroyed it with grenades, taking the surviving Germans prisoner. For his actions, he was later awarded the Victoria Cross. Minor skirmishing continued after this, but by 6:00 am the village had been captured and 200 prisoners taken, for a loss to the 2nd Battalion of eight officers and 173 other ranks killed or wounded.
The battalion played only a limited, supporting role during the 1st Division's repulse of the German counter-attack at Lagnicourt in mid-April, and following this the battalion's next major action came in early May when it was involved in the Second Battle of Bullecourt. The day before the attack, the battalions of the 1st Brigade, despite being due for rest, had been attached to the 2nd Division, and they were subsequently employed to provide work parties to release reserves among the 2nd Division units to take part directly in the fighting. Having not yet recovered its losses from the fighting around Hermies, and being subjected to artillery bombardment during their approach to the front, the 2nd Battalion entered the line on 4 May with just 16 officers and 446 other ranks, subsequently relieving the 24th Battalion. As the Germans attempted to force the Australians back, the 2nd Battalion was moved around a number of times to shore up the line, until units of the 5th Division came up to relieve those of the 1st Brigade on 8 May.
The battalion's next major action came in mid-September when they were committed to the fighting around Menin Road, which formed part of the wider Third Battle of Ypres, in a supporting role. On 16 September, the battalions of the 1st Brigade relieved the 47th (London) Division around Glencourse Ridge, located about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) east of Ypres, holding the line until relieved on 18 September by the 2nd and 3rd Brigades who were to undertake the assault within the 1st Division's sector of the line. Following the assault, the 1st Brigade, including the 2nd Battalion, went forward on 21 September and secured the ground that had been gained. They were subsequently relieved shortly afterwards on the night of 22/23 September by troops from the 14th Brigade, as fresh divisions were brought up to continue the attack at Polygon Wood. The battalion's casualties during this time amounted to 11 officers and 188 other ranks killed or wounded.
After a brief period of rest, they returned to the line near Broodseinde on 1 October, taking up a position near Molenaarelsthoek, on the right of I Anzac's position for the upcoming battle. The attack went in on 4 October, and after overcoming an encounter with a German infantry regiment, the 212th, in no man's land, the Australians successfully managed to capture their objectives. During the battle, the 2nd Battalion lost 10 officers and 144 other ranks killed or wounded, some of which were suffered after an intense German mortar barrage had fallen upon the troops in their form-up point prior to the attack, killing or wounding up to one seventh of the assault force.
On 19 December 1917, after the battalion had moved to the relatively quiet Messines sector in Flanders along with the other Australian divisions following their involvement in the Passchendaele operations, Stevens resumed command; Milligan having been elevated to the general staff. Stevens would subsequently lead them through until September 1918 when he was granted "Anzac leave" which allowed personnel who had enlisted in 1914 to return Australia for an extended period of leave.
Throughout the winter, the Australian divisions remained around Messines, where they had been formed into the Australian Corps. During this time, the brigades rotated through the line, taking their turn to man the divisional sector. The 2nd Battalion had spent Christmas at Kemmel before moving on to Wytschaete Ridge on 26 December. They stayed their until late January when they moved on to Méteren. In early 1918, the collapse of the Russian resistance on the Eastern Front enabled the Germans to transfer a large number of troops to the west.[Note 3] As a result, on 21 March, they launched an offensive along the Western Front. On the opening day of the offensive, the 2nd Battalion's lines near Belgian Wood were raided by the 72nd Infantry Regiment and although the attack was beaten off, four men from the battalion were forcibly taken back to the German lines as prisoners. The initial attack, coming along a 44-mile (71 km) front between La Bassée and La Fère, was quite successful and with the Germans making rapid gains, the Australians were transferred to the Somme Valley where they were put into the line around Amiens to blunt the attack in early April.
Shortly thereafter, during the Battle of the Lys, the 2nd Battalion, along with the rest of the 1st Division, were sent to Hazebrouck. Upon arriving there on 12 April, they took up defensive positions around Strazelle to await the German advance. On 17 April, while defending the village of Sec Bois, the battalion helped turn back a determined German attack.
Following this, between late April and July, a period of lull followed. During this time, the Australians undertook a series of small-scale operations that became known as "peaceful penetrations". After relieving the 3rd Brigade around Méteren on 27 April, the battalions of the 1st Brigade began patrols on 30 April to capture German soldiers to gain intelligence and harass the enemy. These were generally met with considerable success, although they were not without mishap. Two separate patrols were undertaken by the 2nd Battalion on 2 May. The first resulted in one officer being shot while attempting to enter a German trench, while the second resulted in another being shot by an Australian sentry who had not been warned that a patrol had gone out. Later in May, they took up a position opposite Merris, remaining there until the end of the month. Throughout June and July they alternated between Meteren and Merris during which time they continued to raiding operations, which advanced the line about 1,000 yards (910 m) without significant loss.
In August, having gained the initiative, the Allies launched their own offensive commencing at Amiens on 8 August 1918, where the battalions of the 1st Brigade were attached temporarily to the 4th Division, to act as its reserve, guarding the river crossing at Cerisy. Following this they were involved in the advance through Chipilly and Lihons, remaining in reserve until 11 August. Throughout the period of the first week of the offensive, the battalion suffered three officers and 45 other ranks killed or wounded.
After this, the battalion continued operations throughout August and into September. On the night of 10/11 September, while around Hesbécourt, the 2nd Battalion carried out peaceful penetration raids against German reserve positions around Jeancourt. Finding the village empty, they encountered a German patrol from the 81st Infantry Regiment, which was attacked and quickly overwhelmed. At noon the following day, they launched a larger attack with artillery and mortar support, destroying two German outposts to the south of the village, killing eight Germans and capturing 22 others. In their last action, against the Hindenburg Outpost Line on 18/19 September, the battalion suffered a further 77 casualties.
On 23 September the battalion was relieved by American forces. At this time they were withdrawn from the line along with the rest of the 1st Division. They would take no further part in the fighting. In early October, the rest of the Australian Corps, severely depleted due to heavy casualties and falling enlistments in Australia, was also withdrawn upon a request made by Prime Minister Billy Hughes, to re-organise in preparation for further operations. On 11 November, an armistice came into effect, and as hostilities came to an end, the battalion's personnel were slowly repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation and discharge. This was completed in May 1919.
Throughout the war, the 2nd Battalion lost 1,199 men killed and 2,252 wounded. Members of the battalion received the following decorations: one Victoria Cross, four Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George, 20 Military Crosses, 21 Distinguished Conduct Medals, 58 Military Medals with two Bars, four Meritorious Service Medals, 55 Mentioned in Despatches and five foreign awards.
Inter war years and the Second World War
The battalion was re-raised in Newcastle, New South Wales, in May 1921 as part the re-organisation of the Australian military that took place at that time, with the battalion becoming a part-time unit of the Citizens Forces, assigned to the 8th Brigade of the 2nd Military District. Upon formation, the battalion drew its personnel from three previously existing Citizens Forces units: the 2nd and 5th Battalions of the 2nd Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion of the 13th Infantry Regiment, and perpetuated the battle honours and traditions of its associated AIF battalion. As a result of this re-organisation, the battalion adopted the complex lineage of the 2nd Infantry Regiment, which could trace its history through a series of re-organisations back to the 1st Regiment, New South Wales Rifle Volunteers (Newcastle Volunteer Rifle Corps), which had been raised in 1860.
In 1927, territorial unit titles were introduced into the Australian Army, and the battalion adopted the title of the "City of Newcastle Regiment". At the same time, the battalion was afforded the motto Nulli Secundus. In 1929, following the election of the Scullin Labor government, the compulsory training scheme was suspended altogether as it was decided to maintain the part-time military force on a volunteer-only basis. In order to reflect the change, the Citizen Forces was renamed the "Militia" at this time. The end of compulsory training and the fiscal austerity that followed due to the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower available to many Militia units at this time was limited and as a result their frontage dropped well below their authorised establishments. Because of this, the decision was eventually made to amalgamate a number of units. Subsequently the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 41st in 1929, forming the 2nd/41st Battalion, although they were later split in 1933 at which time the 2nd was merged with the 35th, becoming the 2nd/35th Battalion.
Together these two units remained linked until 4 September 1939 when, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Jeater, the 2nd Battalion was once again raised as a separate unit as part of an effort by the Australian government to hastily expand the Militia following the outbreak of the Second World War. During the war, although mobilised and assigned to the 1st Brigade, the battalion did not see active service overseas and was instead used as a garrison force in Australia until 2 December 1943 when it was merged once again with the 41st Battalion, forming the 41st/2nd Battalion. They remained linked until 17 December 1945, when they were disbanded as part of the demobilisation process.
Post Second World War
In 1948, Australia's part-time military force, under the guise of the Citizens Military Force (CMF), was re-raised. At this time, only two divisions were formed along with other supporting units. The 2nd Battalion was one of those units that was re-established, returning to the order of battle in April 1948, as part of the 2nd Division.
Between 1951 and 1960 a national service scheme had operated and during this time the CMF's numbers remained reasonably steady. However, in 1960 the scheme was suspended and the Australian Army was reorganised with the introduction of the Pentropic divisional structure. As a result of this the CMF was greatly reduced and 14 infantry battalions were disbanded altogether, while many others were amalgamated into the battalions of the six sequentially numbered multi-battalion State-based regiments. As a result of this, on 1 July 1960, the 2nd Battalion became part of the Royal New South Wales Regiment, and was reduced to a company-sized element of the Pentropic 2nd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment (2 RNSWR), forming 'C' Company (City of Newcastle Company).[Note 4] Just prior to this, on 30 April 1960, the battalion had been afforded the Freedom of the City of Newcastle.
In 1961, the Pentropic 2 RNSWR was entrusted with the battle honours that had been awarded to the 2/2nd Battalion, which had been raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force and which had served in North Africa, Greece, Crete and New Guinea. These honours would be retained by the 2nd Battalion throughout the rest of its existence.
The Australian Army abandoned the Pentropic divisional structure in 1965, and in an attempt to restore some of the regional ties of the State-based regiments, a number of the regional companies of the State-based regiments were split and used to form new battalions with their traditional numerical designations. As a result, on 1 July 1965, 'C' Company, 2 RNSWR was used to re-raise the 2nd Battalion in its own right. This unit remained in existence until 1987, when further reforms to the Army Reserve led to a reduction in the number of infantry units across Australia and, at a ceremony held at Newcastle on 5 December 1987, the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 17th to form the 2nd/17th Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment, within the 8th Brigade. Before amalgamation, the battalion's regimental march was Braganza, which was confirmed in 1953.
- United Kingdom – The Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey): 1929–1959;
- United Kingdom – The Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment: 1959–1960;
- Canada – The Queen's Rangers (1st American Regiment): 1934–1936;
- Canada – The Queen's York Rangers (1st American Regiment): 1936–1960.
The 2nd Battalion received the following battle honours:
- First World War: Somme 1916–18, Pozières, Bullecourt, Ypres 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Lys, Hazebrouck, Amiens, Albert 1918 (Chuignes), Hindenburg Line, Epehy, France and Flanders 1916–18, ANZAC, Landing at ANZAC, Defence at ANZAC, Suvla, Sari Bair–Lone Pine, Egypt 1915–16, and Herbertshohe.[Note 5]
- Second World War: But–Dagua, North Africa, Bardia 1941, Capture of Tobruk, Greece 1941, Mount Olympus, Tempe Gorge, South-West Pacific 1942–45, Kokoda Trail, Eora Creek–Templeton's Crossing II, Oivi–Gorari, Buna–Gona, Sanananda Road, Liberation of Australian New Guinea, and Nambut Ridge.[Note 6]
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion during the First World War:
- Lieutenant Colonel George Braund;
- Lieutenant Colonel Robert Scobie;
- Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Stevens;
- Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey;
- Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Milligan.
- 1860–1870: 1st Regiment, NSW Rifle Volunteers (Newcastle Volunteer Rifle Corps);
- 1870–1876: The Northern Battalion Volunteer Rifles;
- 1876–1878: The Northern Rifle Regiment;
- 1878–1884: New South Wales Volunteer Infantry, Northern District;
- 1884–1901: 4th Admin Regiment, NSW Volunteer Infantry Northern Districts;
- 1901–1903: 4th Infantry Regiment;
- 1903–1908: 4th Australian Infantry Regiment;
- 1908–1912: 1st Battalion, 4th Australian Infantry Regiment;
- 1912–1914: 16th Infantry (Newcastle Battalion);
- 1914: 2nd Battalion (AIF) raised;
- 1915–1918: 15th Infantry;
- 1918–1919: 2nd Battalion, 2nd Infantry Regiment;
- 1919: 2nd Battalion (AIF) disbanded;
- 1921–1927: 2nd Battalion;
- 1927–1929: 2nd Battalion (The City of Newcastle Regiment);
- 1929–1933: 2nd/41st Battalion;
- 1933–1939: 2nd/35th Battalion;
- 1939–1943: 2nd (The City of Newcastle) Battalion;
- 1939: 2/2nd Battalion (2nd AIF) raised;
- 1943–1946: 41st/2nd Australian Infantry Battalion (AIF);
- 1945–1946: 41st/2nd Australian Infantry Battalion (AIF) and 2/2nd Battalion (2nd AIF) disbanded;
- 1948–1960: 2nd Infantry Battalion (The City of Newcastle Regiment);
- 1960–1965: 'C' Company (City of Newcastle Company), 2nd Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment;
- 1965–1987: 2nd Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment;
- 1987–present: 2nd/17th Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment.
- During the First World War, the authorised strength of an Australian infantry battalion was 1,023 men.
- The 7th and 8th Battalions from the 2nd Brigade were dispatched to man defensive positions.
- At 30 November 1917, there were 160 German divisions on the Western Front. Following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, this rose to 208.
- This battalion consisted of five companies, each of which had been formed from a battalion-level formation. The other battalions which had been merged into 2 RNSWR were: the 30th Bn (The New South Wales Scottish Regiment) which provided 'A' Coy (The New South Wales Scottish Coy); the 17th/18th Bn (The North Shore Regt) which provided 'B' Coy (The North Shore Coy); the 13th Bn (The Macquarie Regt) which provided 'D' Coy (The Macquarie Coy); and the 6th New South Wales Mounted Rifles which provided 'E' Coy (The Mounted Rifles Coy) and Spt Coy (The Kuring Gai Coy).
- Awarded in 1927. The award of "Herbertshohe" was made because many 2nd Battalion soldiers served in the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force in German New Guinea in 1914.
- Inherited by the 2nd Battalion from the 2/2nd Battalion (2nd AIF) in 1961.
- Kuring 2004, p. 47.
- Grey 2008, pp. 85 & 88.
- Bean 1941a, p. 41.
- Harris, Ted. "Off Orbat RNSWR Battalions". Digger History. Archived from the original on 20 August 2008. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
- Kuring 2004, p. 90.
- "2nd Battalion". First World War, 1914–1918 units. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 29.
- Ryan 2003, p. 11.
- Bean 1941a, p. 52.
- Grey 2008, p. 88.
- Grey 2008, p. 91.
- Mallett, Ross. "Part B: Branches – Infantry Battalions". First AIF Order of Battle 1914–1918. Australian Defence Force Academy. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
- Grey 2008, p. 92.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 17.
- Grey 2008, p. 93.
- Bean 1941a, p. 164.
- Grey 2008, pp. 93–94.
- Bean 1941a, p. 281.
- Bean 1941a, pp. 294, 296 & 299.
- Bean 1941a, pp. 309–316.
- McIntyre 1979, pp. 392–393.
- Grey 2008, p. 94.
- Bean 1941b, p. 44.
- Bean 1941b, p. 137.
- Bean 1941b, p. 142.
- Bean 1941b, pp. 143–144.
- Bean 1941b, p. 144.
- Bean 1941b, pp. 167–168.
- Bean 1941b, p. 251.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 107.
- Bean 1941b, p. 498.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 108.
- Bean 1941b, p. 566.
- Bean 1941a, p. 296.
- Sweeting 1990, pp. 73–74.
- Baldwin 1962, p. 61.
- Broadbent 2005, p. 251.
- Broadbent 2005, pp. 251–255.
- Broadbent 2005, p. 258.
- Baldwin 1962, p. 62.
- Cameron 2011, p. 316.
- Bean 1941b, p. 877.
- Grey 2008, p. 98.
- Grey 2008, pp. 99–100.
- Bean 1941c, p. 42.
- Bean 1941c, pp. 48–49.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 18.
- Grey 2008, p. 100.
- Bean 1941c, p. 69.
- Bean 1941c, p. 77.
- Grey 2008, p. 101.
- Bean 1941c, p. 189.
- Bean 1941c, p. 194.
- Bean 1941c, p. 471.
- Bean 1941c, pp. 260–283.
- Bean 1941c, p. 477.
- Bean 1941c, p. 478.
- Bean 1941c, p. 494.
- Bean 1941c, p. 495.
- Bean 1941c, pp. 496–497.
- Bean 1941c, p. 502.
- Bean 1941c, pp. 516–517.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 117.
- Bean 1941c, p. 586.
- Bean 1941c, p. 593.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 19.
- Bean 1941c, p. 771.
- Bean 1941c, pp. 790–791.
- Bean 1941c, p. 877.
- Bean 1941c, p. 878.
- Bean 1941c, p. 879.
- Bean 1941c, p. 884.
- Bean 1941c, pp. 884–885.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 120
- Bean 1941c, p. 905.
- Bean 1941c, p. 950.
- Horner 1998, pp. 46–47.
- Ryan 2003, p. 12.
- Baldwin 1962, pp. 98–100.
- Baldwin 1962, p. 99.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 20.
- Haken 1986, pp. 514–515.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 238–239.
- Bean 1941d, p. 239.
- Bean 1941d, p. 242.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 243–244.
- Bean 1941d, p. 244.
- Higgins 1983, pp. 571–572.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 245–246.
- Bean 1941d, p. 247.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 126.
- Bean 1941d, p. 430.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 475–476.
- Bean 1941d, p. 488.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 492–521
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 127.
- Bean 1941d, p. 750.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 131.
- Bean 1941d, p. 797.
- Bean 1941d, p. 788.
- Bean 1941d, p. 789.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 834 & 837.
- Bean 1941d, p. 841
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 132.
- Bean 1941d, p. 876.
- Bean 1941d, pp. 843–844.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 134.
- Coulthard-Clark 1998, p. 138.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 22.
- Baldwin 1962, p. 126.
- Baldwin 1962, p. 141.
- Bean 1941e, p. 112.
- Grey 2008, p. 108.
- Bean 1941e, p. 420.
- Bean 1941e, pp. 443–444.
- Bean 1941e, p. 448.
- Bean 1941e, p. 484.
- Bean 1942, p. 49.
- Bean 1942, pp. 56–57.
- Bean 1942, pp. 384.
- Bean 1942, pp. 391, 410 & 420.
- Bean 1942, p. 601.
- Bean 1942, p. 617.
- Bean 1942, pp. 650 & 669.
- Bean 1942, p. 678.
- Bean 1942, p. 684.
- Bean 1942, p. 887.
- Bean 1942, p. 888.
- Bean 1942, p. 931.
- Taylor & Cusack 1942, p. 333.
- Bean 1942, p. 935.
- Grey 2008, p. 109.
- Grey 2008, p. 125.
- Palazzo 2001, p. 102.
- Harris, Ted. "Australian Infantry Unit Colour Patches 1921–1949". Digger History. Archived from the original on 6 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- Festberg 1972, p. 59.
- "2nd Infantry Battalion". Regiments.org (archived). Archived from the original on 18 November 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
- Stanley, Peter. "Broken Lineage: The Australian Army's Heritage of Discontinuity". A Century of Service. Army History Unit. Archived from the original on 21 March 2011. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- Harris, Ted. "Lineage of the Royal New South Wales Regiment". Digger History. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
- Festberg 1972, p. 60.
- Grey 2008, p. 138.
- Palazzo 2001, p. 110.
- Keogh 1965, p. 44.
- "2 Infantry Battalion: Appointments". Orders of Battle.com. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- "2 Infantry Battalion: History". Orders of Battle.com. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- Keogh 1965, p. 49.
- "2 Infantry Battalion: Superiors". Orders of Battle.com. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- Grey 2008, pp. 200–201.
- "A Brief History of the 2nd Division". Army History Unit. Archived from the original on 10 July 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- Grey 2008, p. 228.
- Palazzo 2001, p. 259.
- "2/2nd Battalion". Second World War, 1939–1945 units. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- 2/17 Battalion History Committee 1998, pp. 332–333
- Shaw 2010, p. 11
- Kuring 2004, p. 436.
- Bean 1942, p. 193.
- 2/17 Battalion History Committee (1998). What We Have We Hold: A History of the 2/17 Australian Infantry Battalion, 1940–1945. Loftus, New South Wales: Australian Military History Publications. ISBN 1-876439-36-X.
- Baldwin, Hanson (1962). World War I: An Outline History. London: Hutchinson. OCLC 988365.
- Bean, Charles (1941a). The Story of ANZAC from the Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign, May 4, 1915. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 I (11th ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 37052344.
- Bean, Charles (1941b). The Story of ANZAC from May 4, 1915, to the Evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 II (11th ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 220898941.
- Bean, Charles (1941c). The Australian Imperial Force in France, 1916. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 III (12th ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 220623454.
- Bean, Charles (1941d). The Australian Imperial Force in France, 1917. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 IV (11th ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 220898229.
- Bean, Charles (1941e). The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Main German Offensive, 1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 V (8th ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 220898057.
- Bean, Charles (1942). The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Allied Offensive, 1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 VI (1st ed.). Sydney, New South Wales: Angus and Robertson. OCLC 41008291.
- Broadbent, Harvey (2005). Gallipoli: The Fatal Shore. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin Group Australia. ISBN 0-670-04085-1.
- Cameron, David (2011). Gallipoli: The Final Battles and Evacuation of Anzac. Newport, New South Wales: Big Sky Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9808140-9-5.
- Coulthard-Clark, Chris (1998). Where Australians Fought: The Encyclopaedia of Australia's Battles. St Leonards, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86448-611-2.
- Festberg, Alfred (1972). The Lineage of the Australian Army. Melbourne, Victoria: Allara Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85887-024-6.
- Grey, Jeffrey (2008). A Military History of Australia (3rd ed.). Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69791-0.
- Haken, J.K. (1986). "Milligan, Stanley Lyndall (1887–1968)". Australian Dictionary of Biography 10. Melbourne, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. pp. 514–515.
- Higgins, Matthew (1983). "Kenny, Thomas James Bede (1896 – 1953)". Australian Dictionary of Biography 9. Melbourne, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. pp. 571–572.
- Horner, David (1998). Blamey: The Commander-in-Chief. St Leonards, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86448-734-8.
- Keogh, Eustace (1965). The South West Pacific 1941–45. Melbourne, Victoria: Grayflower Productions. OCLC 7185705.
- Kuring, Ian (2004). Redcoats to Cams: A History of Australian Infantry 1788–2001. Loftus, New South Wales: Australian Military History Publications. ISBN 1-876439-99-8.
- McIntyre, Darryl (1979). "Braund, George Frederick (1866–1915)". Australian Dictionary of Biography 7. Melbourne, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. pp. 392–393.
- Palazzo, Albert (2001). The Australian Army. A History of its Organisation 1901–2001. South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-551507-2.
- Ryan, Alan (2003). Putting Your Young Men in the Mud: Change, Continuity and the Australian Infantry Battalion. Land Warfare Studies Centre Working Papers. Working Paper No. 124. Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory: Land Warfare Studies Centre. ISBN 0-642-29595-6.
- Shaw, Peter (2010). "The Evolution of the Infantry State Regiment System in the Army Reserve". Sabretache (Garran, Australian Capital Territory: Military Historical Society of Australia) LI (4 (December)): pp. 5–12. ISSN 0048-8933.
- Sweeting, A.J. (1990). "Stevens, Arthur Borlase (1880–1965)". Australian Dictionary of Biography 12. Melbourne, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. pp. 73–74.
- Taylor, Frederick; Cusack, Timothy (1942). Nulli Secundus: A History of the 2nd Battalion, AIF, 1914–1919. Sydney, New South Wales: New Century Press. OCLC 35134503.
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Discovered in a cupboard 20 years ago, the only surviving police archive documenting the deportation of French Jews has been opened up to public view for the first time. The contents are a treasure trove for historians.
One of the most extraordinary documents on show is "Memo 173 - 42," dated July 13, 1942 and marked "secret." ''The occupying authorities," it reads, "have decided upon the arrest and grouping together of a carchertain number of foreign Jews."
Over nine pages, the head of the Paris police details his orders for the enactment of the Holocaust on French soil. Three days later, a few hours before dawn on July 16, French police operating in groups of two - one in uniform, one in plain clothes and accompanied by a German soldier - arrested more than 13,000 Parisian Jews.
"Many, many documents of this period were destroyed at the end of the war. It's very rare. This is unique," said Olivier Accarie Pierson, curator of an exhibition that's just opened at the town hall of Paris's third arrondissement.
Mysteriously, in this district and in no other, the documents testifying to the daily life in Paris during the occupation escaped destruction. Whether it was an act of civil disobedience or administrative oversight, nobody knows why the records survived, said Accarie Pierson. But one day, about 20 years ago, they were discovered in a cupboard.
Mine of information
This is the first time the documents have been put on public view. Historians, however, have been studying them since they were put into the central Paris police archive, a mine of information on the minutiae of Parisian life stretching back to before the French Revolution.
Other documents on display are the lists of names - hundreds and hundreds of them - written in a ledger by a meticulous French policemen during the census of Jews ordered by the Germans as soon as they occupied Paris in 1940. That census was updated in 1941, when Jews were forbidden from listening to the radio and were ordered to hand in their wireless sets. The names and addresses of those who complied were taken down and used for future roundups.
Poring over the documents in this exhibition, it's difficult not to be shocked by the clipped, official language. "And yet we were talking about thousands of people!" said Accarie Pierson, men, women and children who would soon perish in Nazi death camps.
The Jews were sent to two camps - the winter cycling track ("Vélodrome d'Hiver" or "Vél d'hiv") in the west of Paris and an internment camp set up just outside the capital, at Drancy. Although no photographic evidence has survived of their interiors, conditions must have been hellish. For example, in a postwar photo taken of the inside of the cycling stadium, it's clear that the camps didn't even contain beds, according to Accarie Pierson.
In 1942 Paris, the Jews were already being treated like animals. Police chief René Bousquet collaborated directly with the Gestapo to facilitate the roundups, and the bureaucratic language sometimes lets through a glimmer of disdain for the Jews from other police chiefs.
After a few weeks in the camps, all the Jews rounded up on July 16 had been deported by train, mostly to Auschwitz. "The Vélodrome d'Hiver has been "liberated," wrote one police officer. "A few personal belongings and 50 sick people were left behind. Everything ("le tout") has now been transferred to Drancy."
"The police obeyed the German orders but they also guessed what the Germans wanted and acted accordingly before the Germans asked them to," said Accarie Pierson.
The Germans, however, were angry that the French didn't detain more Jews that week. The French police had expected to arrest slightly over 27,000 people. That they didn't get that number was thanks to the courage of individual police officers.
"A few days before the arrests, many policemen went to the homes of the people that they were supposed to arrest and said to them, 'When we come on July 16, when we knock on the door, make sure you're not there. You have to escape!" explained Accarie Pierson.
Looking for traces
Many were warned and fled, but few thought the police would arrest women and children. This explains why, out of the 13,152 arrested on that night, almost 10,000 were women or children. One of those police officers helped save the family of Moise Weinflasch. He, like many others coming to this exhibition, was looking for a trace of his family.
During the war, his parents and sister lived just down the road from the town hall, neighbors with an older woman. "They escaped because they were informed that they would arrest Jews. They had to hide somewhere and they didn't know where to go, so my mother said, 'We will ask her if she can hide us.' And this neighbor hid all the family," Weinflasch said. "Five of them in a 60 square meter flat." Weinflasch and his family are still in touch with the family of the woman who saved them.
One other extraordinary sign of rebellion against the Germans is also included in the exhibition: the mock yellow stars that some young non-Jewish Parisians made and wore to mock and protest the Nazis' racial policy. One of the stars in the show has Goi written on it - the Hebrew word for gentile or non-Jew. Others, worn by jazz fans called the Zazous, are emblazoned with the word "swing."
Eight of those mock yellow star wearers were interned with the Jews at the Drancy camp and were imprisoned there for two months. They were made to wear badges marked with the phrase, "I love Jews." As for the 13,152 French Jews rounded up that morning, all but a tiny number were killed at Auschwitz.
Investigators have found drugs used in the treatment of psychological problems at the house of the Germanwings co-pilot. The findings were reported by German weekly Welt am Sonntag.
The former Romanian finance minister has been questioned over 101 paintings in his possession amid a corruption probe. They include three works signed by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso.
Lufthansa, the parent company of Germanwings, has offered victims' families up to 50,000 euros ($55,000) in aid. The money will be separate from the compensation the airline will have to pay over the disaster.
Italian investigators have found Pablo Picasso's missing 1912 "Violin and Bottle of Bass" oil painting. The authenticated work was given to a retired frame maker in Rome nearly 40 years ago and then forgotten about.
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Soap made from human corpses
In the 20th century, there have been various alleged instances of soap being made from human body fat. During World War II it was believed that soap was being mass-produced from the bodies of the victims of Nazi concentration camps located in German-occupied Poland.
The Yad Vashem Memorial has stated that the Nazis did not produce soap from Jewish corpses on an industrial scale, saying that rumors that soap from human corpses was being mass-produced and distributed were used by the Nazis to frighten camp inmates.
Evidence does exist that German researchers had developed a process for the semi-industrial production of soap from human bodies. The production of soap from human bodies by Nazis on small scale was confirmed in 2006.
World War I
The claim that Germans used the fat from human corpses to make products was made by the British during World War I (see Kadaververwertungsanstalt), with The Times reporting in April 1917 that the Germans were rendering the bodies of their dead soldiers for fat to make soap and other products. It was not until 1925 that the British Foreign Secretary Sir Austen Chamberlain officially admitted that the "corpse factory" story had been a falsehood.
World War II
Rumours that the Nazis produced soap from the bodies of concentration camp inmates circulated widely during the war. Germany suffered a shortage of fats during World War II, and the production of soap was put under government control. The "human soap" rumours may have originated from the bars of soap being marked with the initials RIF, which was interpreted by some as Reichs-Juden-Fett ("State Jewish Fat"); (in German Blackletter font the difference between I and J is only in length). RIF in fact stood for Reichsstelle für industrielle Fettversorgung ("National Center for Industrial Fat Provisioning", the German government agency responsible for wartime production and distribution of soap and washing products). RIF soap was a poor quality substitute product that contained no fat at all, human or otherwise. Raul Hilberg reports such stories as circulating in Lublin as early as October 1942. The Germans themselves were aware of the stories, as SS-chief Heinrich Himmler had received a letter describing the Polish belief that Jews were being "boiled into soap" and which indicated that the Poles feared they would suffer a similar fate. Indeed, the rumours circulated so widely that some segments of the Polish population actually boycotted the purchase of soap. Himmler was disturbed enough by the rumors, and the implication of poor security at the camps, that he emphasized that all corpses should be cremated or buried as quickly as possible.
Joachim Neander, in a German paper presented at the 28th conference of the German Studies Association, cites the following quote by Himmler from a November 20, 1942 letter to the head of the Gestapo, Heinrich Müller. Himmler had written to Müller due to an exposé by Rabbi Dr. Stephen Wise, which mentioned the soap rumor and had been printed in The New York Times:
|“||You have guaranteed me that at every site the corpses of these deceased Jews are either burned or buried, and that at no site anything else can happen with the corpses.||”|
Müller was to make inquires if "abuse" had happened somewhere and report this to Himmler "on SS oath"; Himmler hence did not from the outset exclude the possibility that such had taken place. Neander goes on to state that the letter represents circumstantial evidence that it was Nazi policy to abstain from processing corpses due to their known desire to keep their mass murder as secret as possible.
A version of the story is included in The Complete Black Book of Russian Jewry, one of the earliest collections of firsthand accounts of the Holocaust, assembled by Soviet writers Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Grossman. The specific story is part of a report titled "The Extermination of the Jews of Lvov" attributed to I. Herts and Naftali Nakht:
In another section of the Belzec camp was an enormous soap factory. The Germans picked out the fattest Jews, murdered them, and boiled them down for soap.
Artur [Izrailevich] Rozenshtraukh - a bank clerk from Lvov, in whose words we relate this testimony - held this "Jewish soap" in his own hands.
The Gestapo thugs never denied the existence of a "production process" of this kind. Whenever they wanted to intimidate a Jew, they would say to him, "We'll make soap out of you."
Naphtali Karchmer, in his book "SOLITARY IN THE OVERWHELMING TURBULENCE- five years as prisoner-of-war in east prussia", describes his years in captivity as a Jewish-Polish POW. The author writes about gray, rectangular, low-quality pieces of soap he and other POWs received with the letters "RJF" inscribed on a center depression . When one of the POWs complained about the low-foam, smooth soap, the lady of the household answered it was made of "Rein Juden Fett" (pure Jewish fat), when asked "out of human fat?", she answered "No, just Jews".
Danzig Anatomical Institute
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During the Nuremberg Trials, Sigmund Mazur, a laboratory assistant at the Danzig Anatomical Institute, testified that soap had been made from corpse fat at the camp, and claimed that 70 to 80 kg (150–180 lb) of fat collected from 40 bodies could produce more than 25 kg (55 lb) of soap, and that the finished soap was retained by Professor Rudolf Spanner. Eyewitnesses included British POWs who were part of the forced labor that constructed the camp, and Dr. Stanisław Byczkowski, head of the Department of Toxicology at the Gdańsk School of Medicine. Holocaust survivor Thomas Blatt, who investigated the subject, found little concrete documentation and no evidence of mass production of soap from human fat, but concluded that there was evidence of experimental soap making. Danzig was the German name of the now-Polish city of Gdańsk:
Testimony was given both by Nazis and by British prisoners of war about the development of an industrial process for producing soap from human bodies, the production of such soap on a small-scale basis, and the actual use of this soap by Nazi personnel at the Danzig Anatomic Institute.
The prosecutor: The experiments of the Anatomical Institute in the production the soap from the corpses and tanning of human skin for industrial purposes were conducted on a wide scale. I submit a document[...] to the tribunal, which consists of the testimony of Sigmund Mazur, one of the direct participants of the production of soap from the human fat, he was helper-laboratory assistant at the Danzig Anatomical institute.[...]
"The question: Please tell us how soap was produced from the human fat at the Danzig Anatomical institute?
The answer: In summer of 1943 in the yard of the Anatomical institute a two-storey stone building containing three chambers was built. This building was designed for the purpose of utilizing corpses and cooking the bones, as the professor Spanner officially declared. The laboratory was defined as the institution of taking down skeletons, burning meat and superfluous bones, but in the winter 1943-1944 he the year of the prof Spanner instructed us to collect the human fat which was not to be thrown away any more. This order was given to Reichert and Borkmann.
Prof Spanner gave me the recipe for the production of soap from the human fat in February 1944. According to this recipe 5 kg (11 lb) of the human fat appertained to be mixed with 10 the litres (2.2 imp gal; 2.6 US gal) of water and 500 to 1000 grams of the caustic soda. This mixture was cooked for two up to three hours, then it was allowed to cool. Then the soap rose to the surface, while water and settlings were under it. To this mixture a pinch of salt and soda was added and it was cooked again for two up to three hours. After cooling the soap was poured into a mould."'
In his book Russia at War 1941 to 1945, Alexander Werth reported that while visiting Gdansk/Danzig in 1945 shortly after its liberation by the Red Army, he saw an experimental factory outside the city for making soap from human corpses. According to Werth it had been run by "a German professor called Spanner" and "was a nightmarish sight, with its vats full of human heads and torsos pickled in some liquid, and its pails full of a flakey substance - human soap".
Jasenovac concentration camp
In NDH, a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany and Italy established in part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia, in the Jasenovac concentration camp a small factory for converting human remains into soap was also established by "Ustaše". The parts of the "soap factory" still exist and can be seen in Memoral zone "Donja Gradina".
The idea that "human soap" was manufactured on an industrial scale by the Nazis was published after the war by Alain Resnais, who treated the testimony of Holocaust survivors as fact in his noted 1955 holocaust documentary movie Nuit et brouillard. Some postwar Israelis also referred disdainfully to Jewish victims of Nazism with the Hebrew word סבון (sabon, "soap").
Though evidence does exist of small-scale soap production, possibly experimental, in the camp at Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig/Gdansk, mainstream scholars of the Holocaust consider the idea that the Nazis manufactured soap on an industrial scale to be part of World War II folklore. Historian Israel Gutman has stated that "it was never done on a mass scale". In Hitler's Death Camps: The Sanity of Madness Konnilyn Feig concludes that the Nazis "did indeed use human fat for the making of soap at Stutthof," albeit in limited quantity. Holocaust historian Robert Melvin Spector writes that "her analysis seems sound, given the known fact that the S.S. used everything it could obtain from its prisoners", including hair, skin and bones.
In 2006 a sample of the soap archived at the International Court of Justice in The Hague was given for analysis to Andrzej Stołyhwo, an expert in the chemistry of fats from the Gdansk University of Technology in Poland. He concluded that some of the fat in the sample tested was of human origin. The sample of soap had previously been used as evidence in the post-World War II Nuremberg trials, but at the time the technology was unavailable to determine whether the soap had been produced from human fat. The human remains used to make the soap were believed to have been brought from Kaliningrad, Bydgoszcz and Stutthof concentration camp.
This process figures in the 1962 novel Dog Years, the third book of Günter Grass's "Danzig Trilogy". The passage is several pages long but runs in part (in Ralph Manheim's translation) "And piles of bones, heaped up for the sake of purity, will melt cook boil in order that soap, pure and cheap: but even soap cannot wash pure."
The famous anti-war novel Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut mentions not only a human soap being produced in World War II but also candles. "Only the candles and the soap were of German origin. They had a ghostly, opalescent similarity. The British had no way of knowing it, but the candles and the soap were made from the fat of rendered Jews and Gypsies and fairies and communists, and other enemies of the State."
In the novel Europa Europa by Solomon Perel the author speaks about using RIF soap in the showers of his Hitler Youth Camp. Mr. Solomon complains that the soap would not make adequate suds to cover up his circumcision from the rest of the boys.
The Soap Myth is a 2009 play about the Nazi production of soap from the bodies of the those they murdered. A 2012 production was filmed and is now paired with a short documentary "I Will Not Bubble."
Zofia Nałkowska: Medaliony. Nałkowska was a Polish writer and a member of the Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes. One of her novels in Medaliony [Medalions] talks about a pool full of human corpses used for production of soap.
Greenhorn, based on a true story, is a 2012 novel for young readers by Anna Olswanger. Daniel, a young Holocaust survivor, comes to Brooklyn yeshiva in the 1940s, where his obsessive attachment to a mysterious box excites the curiosity of the other boys. They subsequently discover that Daniel's treasure, his only connection with his lost past, is a chunk of soap made from human fat. Anna Olswanger is the author of the award-winning Shlemiel Crooks.
Ambrose Bierce's 1911 tall tale Oil of Dog treats the similar subject of a medicinal oil being made from human corpses. In this characteristic macabre satire, human oil is regarded as highly superior over common dog oil, its making being viewed from a strictly financial point of view.
- Anthropodermic bibliopegy (In some cases, skin with tattoos was preserved in Nazi concentration camps.)
- Jewish skeleton collection (Jews killed for their skeletons)
- Kadaververwertungsanstalt ("corpse utilization factories") (misreported WW1 story that became legendary)
- Lampshades made from human skin
- Bill Hutman, "Nazis never made human-fat soap," The Jerusalem Post - International Edition, week ending May 5, 1990.
- "Holocaust Expert Rejects Charge That Nazis Made Soap from Jews," Northern California Jewish Bulletin, April 27, 1990. (JTA dispatch from Tel Aviv.) Facsimile in: Christian News, May 21, 1990, p. 19.
- "A Holocaust Belief Cleared Up," Chicago Tribune, April 25, 1990. Facsimile in: Ganpac Brief, June 1990, p. 8.
- Justice at Nuremberg, Robert E. Conot, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1984, pp. 298-9
- Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 7, SIXTY-SECOND DAY, 19 February 1946, Morning Session http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/02-19-46.asp
- "Human Fat Was Used to Produce Soap in Gdansk during the War", Auschwitz–Birkenau Memorial and Museum website
- Knightley, Phillip (2000). The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo. Prion. pp. 105–106. ISBN 1-85375-376-9.
- Ponsonby, Arthur (1928). Falsehood in Wartime. New York: Dutton. pp. 102, 111–112.
- Waxman, Zoë (2006). Writing the Holocaust: Identity, Testimony, Representation. Oxford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 0-19-920638-4.
- Hilberg, Raul (1985). The Destruction of the European Jews: The Revised and Definitive Edition. Holmes & Meier. p. 967. ISBN 0-8419-0832-X.
- UCSB History Page: Did Nazis use human body fat to make soap? Accessed December 29, 2006.
- Joachim Neander: „Seife aus Judenfett“, paper presented at the Oct. 2004 German Studies Association conference. http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/dachau/legends/NeanderSoap049.htm
- Ehrenburg, Ilya; Il'ja Grigor'jevic Erenburg, Vasilij Semenovic Grossman, et al. (2003). The Complete Black Book of Russian Jewry. Transaction Publishers. p. 82. ISBN 0-7658-0543-X.
- Shermer, Michael; Alex Grobman; Arthur Hertzberg (2002). Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?. University of California Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-520-23469-3.
- Hitler's death camps: the sanity of madness, Konnilyn G. Feig, Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1981, pp. 200. ff.
- Werth, Alexander (1964). Russia at War, 1941-1945. Dutton. p. 1019.
- Goldberg, Michael (1996). Why Should Jews Survive?: Looking Past the Holocaust Toward a Jewish Future. Oxford University Press US. p. 122. ISBN 0-19-511126-5.
- Denying history: who says the Holocaust never happened and why do they say it? Michael Shermer, Alex Grobman, University of California Press, 2002, The Human Soap Controversy, pp. 114- 117
- The soap myth (Jewish Virtual Library) Accessed December 29, 2006.
- Walter Laqueur, The Terrible Secret (Boston: 1980), pp. 82, 219.
- Gitta Sereny, Into That Darkness (London: A. Deutsch, 1974), p. 141 (note).
- "Nazi Soap Rumor During World War II," Los Angeles Times, May 16, 1981, p. II/2.
- World without civilization: mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis, Robert Melvin Spector, University Press of America, 2004, p. 392.
- "Human Fat Was Used to Produce Soap in Gdansk during the War", Auschwitz–Birkenau Memorial and Museum website, 13 October 2006. Accessed July 12, 2011.
- Deceit & Misrepresentation. The Techniques of Holocaust Denial: The Soap Allegations. Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6 (Nizkor Project)
- False Witness; A play examines the notion that Nazis made soap from Jewish flesh, MARISSA BROSTOFF, July 21, 2009, Tab tlet Magazine http://www.tabletmag.com/arts-and-culture/theater-and-dance/10929/false-witness/
- Dr Jonathan Hare. "The Creative Science Centre". Retrieved 5 December 2011.
- Greenhorn, published by NewSouth Books, Trade Cloth, 48 pages, ISBN 978-1-58838-235-1. See also discussion guides at http://www.newsouthbooks.com/greenhorn.
- El hombre lobo de Allariz cobra vida en la película 'Romasanta', Susanna Valencia, El País, 19 September 2003.
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Ярославская область (Russian)
|— Oblast —|
|Established||March 11, 1936|
|Government (as of March 2011)|
|- Governor||Sergey Vakhrukov|
|- Legislature||Oblast Duma|
|Area (as of the 2002 Census)|
|- Total||36,400 km2 (14,100 sq mi)|
|Population (2010 Census)|
|- Density||34.96/km2 (90.5/sq mi)|
|Time zone(s)||MSK (UTC+03:00)|
Yaroslavl Oblast (Russian: Яросла́вская о́бласть, Yaroslavskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast), which is located in the Central Federal District, surrounded by Tver, Moscow, Ivanovo, Vladimir, Kostroma, and Vologda Oblasts. This geographic location affords the oblast the advantages of proximity to Moscow and St. Petersburg. Additionally, the administrative center of the oblast—the city of Yaroslavl—is an intersection of major highways, railroads, and waterways. Population: 1,272,468 (2010 Census).
The climate of Yaroslavl Oblast is temperate continental, with long, cold and snowy winters, and a short but quite warm summer. Average January temperature is about −12 °C (10 °F), while average July's is +18 °C (64 °F). Formerly almost all territory was covered with thick conifer forest (fir, pine), but now a large portion of it has been replaced with birch-and-aspen secondary forests and crop fields. Swamps also take considerable areas.
A great number of wild birds live and nest in the oblast.
The Volga River flows through Yaroslavl Oblast, with two major dams constructed at Uglich and Rybinsk. The Rybinsk Reservoir, filled between 1941 and 1947, is one of the largest in Europe; its filling flooded the town of Mologa and several hundreds of villages, necessitating the relocation of some 150,000 in Yaroslavl, Vologda, and Kalinin (now Tver) Oblasts.
First people settled in the area of the modern day Yaroslavl Oblast during the Paleolithic Era with the end of the last glacial period. Agriculture was introduced in the region not later than the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC with the arrival of the Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture. The earliest historically known inhabitants of the Yaroslavl region were the Volga Finnic Merya people who came into close contact with Balto-Slavic tribes of Krivichs and Slovens since the 9-10th centuries and eventually blended into a single cultural community with other people of the Kievan Rus'.
Early medieval Rus'
The oblast belonged to the core of the Russian lands since the early Middle Ages. Rostov, the oldest city in the region, was first mentioned in 862. It soon became the main political and religious (the Rostov eparchy established in 991 was one of the earliest in Russia) centers of the Northeast Kievan Rus'. Many notable Rurikid princes had their fief in Rostov, among them were St. Boris and Yaroslav the Wise, the founder of the city of Yaroslavl.
In 1054 Rostov and other North-Eastern lands were inherited by Yaroslav's son Vsevolod who also ruled the southern Principality of Pereyaslavl. Remaining in their distant capital the princes of Pereyaslavl had to rule the province through their viceregents. That period was most memorable for the 1071 smerd rebellion led by still powerful magi of Yarsolavl during which bishop Leontius of Rostov was murdered.
In early 12th century Rostov got its own prince, Yuri Dolgoruky, the grandson of Vsevolod. He moved his capital to Suzdal in 1125 diminishing the influence of Rostov as a result. During his reign Dolgoruky founded many major cities of the Northeast Rus, those include Pereslavl, Uglich and Romanov of the modern day Yaroslavl Oblast. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky who succeeded his father Yury as a ruler of the Rostov-Suzdal lands in 1157 was the first Russian ruler to give up his claims for the thrones of Kiev and Pereyaslavl. He proclaimed himself a Grand Prince and moved his capital to the city of Vladimir near Suzdal marking the beginning of history of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.
After the death of Andrey's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1212 Russian North-East entered a continuous stage of feudal fragmentation. Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pereslavl and Uglich became principalities on their own right still recognizing formal suzerainty of the Grand Princes of Vladimir.
Tatar Yoke era
Northeastern Rus was attacked by the Mongol-Tatar armies in the winter of 1238. Pereslavl struggled for five days losing most of its population, Rostov and Uglich fell without a fight. Grand Prince Yuri II of Vladimir was killed along with his nephews, princes of Rostov and Yaroslavl, in the Battle of the Sit River in the northern part of the region. As a result of the invasion the Vladimir-Suzdal domain was obliged to pay tribute to the conquerors and recognize their political will.
During the 13th and 14th centuries Rostov and Yaroslavl principalities continued to split up and weaken. It made them an easy target for other powerful princes, most importantly the House of Moscow. In 1302 Ivan of Pereslavl bequeathed his principality to Daniel of Moscow. In 1328 Ivan I of Moscow bought out the Uglich principality. Starting with 1332 Muscovites began to acquire parts of the Rostov Principality little by little completely subduing it by the middle of the 15th century. In 1380 soldiers of the Rostov and Yaroslavl principalities joined the allied army of Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo.
The gathering of the Russian lands in the Yaroslavl Oblast was completed by Ivan III the Great. In 1463 he forced the last prince of Yaroslavl, Alexander Bryukhaty, to sell out all of his possessions, in 1474 he bought the rest of the territories that still were co-owned with Moscow by the house of Rostov.
Tsardom of Russia
In the 16th century Yaroslavl became a major trade center connecting Central Russia with the lower regions of Volga and Arkhangelsk, the main trading outpost of the British Muscovy Company. At the same time Rostov remained to be a center of the richest and one of the most influential eparchies of the Russian Orthodox Church. Rostov archbishops were granted a metropolitan status in 1589.
During the Time of Troubles of the early 17th century Rostov and Yaroslavl provinces were heavily raided by the rebel forces of False Dmitry II and his Polish–Lithuanian allies. In 1609–1610 the invaders were driven out by a Russian militia of Gagarin and Vysheslavtsev who gathered their forces in Vologda. In the late 1614 northern part of the region (Poshekhonye) were terrorized by a rogue cossack unit led by ataman Baloven. Next year surrounding areas of Uglich and Romanov were reached by the notorious Polish–Lithuanian Lisowczycy raiders. In 1618 taking their part in the Polish invasion of Russia Zaporozhian Cossacks of hetman Sahaidachny captured Yaroslavl, Pereslavl and Romanov.
Later in the 17th century thanks to active commercial growth in the area Yaroslavl became more important than ever. By the middle of the century it was the second biggest Russian city with population of 15 thousands people. Starting with 1692 Pereslavl and Rostov were finally subjected to Yaroslavl. In 1719 after a new administrative reform territories of the modern oblast were separated between the Yaroslavl and Uglich Provinces of the Saint Petersburg Governorate and Pereslavl and Kostroma Provinces of the Moscow Governorate. In 1727 Yaroslavl and Uglich were also handed to Moscow.
After the foundation of Saint Petersburg and a subsequent decline of the northern trading routes Yaroslav lost its role of a major trade center and the second most important Russian city. Nonetheless the city continued to drive development of its region entering an era of industrial growth. In 1718 the first public elementary school was established in Yaroslavl, in 1747 Spaso-Preobrazhensky monastery opened a seminary. In 1750 young Yaroslavl socialite Fyodor Volkov organized the very first permanent theater in Russia.
In 1777 a separate Yaroslavl Governorate (then viceroyalty) was established, it included surrounding areas of Yaroslavl, Rostov and Uglich. As a part of the reform many settlements of the region were granted town status, namely Rybinsk, Poshekhonye, Myshkin and Mologa. Changes continued with the archbishop of Rostov moving his permanent residence from Rostov to Yaroslavl. In 1803 Pavel Demidov founded the Yaroslavl School of Higher Studies, the first university college in the governorate.
Since the 18th century Rostov became widely known for its finift enamel jewelry crafts. In 1850 the first Russian tobacco factory Balkanskaya Zvezda was opened in Yaroslavl. First railroads connected the Yaroslavl region with Moscow in 1870 and Vologda in 1872. In 1879 Dmitri Mendeleev helped to create the first oil refinery in the empire near Romanov-Borisoglebsk. During the 1910s the region was intended to become a major center of burgeoning automotive industry, new factories were founded in Rybinsk (Russky Renault) and Yaroslavl (Lebedev Automobile Factory) in 1916.
Soviet power in the Yaroslavl Governorate was installed in a relatively peaceful way. The only notable events of the Civil War that occurred in the region were the Yaroslavl and Rybinsk revolts of July 1918 organized by Boris Savinkov's Union for the Defense of the Motherland and Freedom. In Rybinsk Cheka aided with the Red Army dealt with the rebels in one day, but in Yaroslavl the clashes continued for two weeks. To put the Yaroslavl rebels down, the Reds had to involve their artillery and aviation. Both sides lost more than a thousand people during those events, thousands of Yaroslavl families lost their homes in the subsequent fires. Although the revolts were unsuccessful, they still managed to draw a significant part of the Bolshevik forces off to Central Russia helping the Whites to capture Yekaterinburg, Simbirsk, and Kazan.
In 1921-1923, the northern part of the governorate shorty became a separate Rybinsk Governorate later returned to Yaroslavl jurisdiction. In 1929, the region was split one more time between Yaroslavl and Rybinsk Okrugs, which became a part of the newly established Ivanovo Industrial Oblast. Yaroslavl Oblast was created on March 11, 1936, which included most of the former Yaroslavl Governorate added with a big part of the former Kostroma Governorate, along with the City of Kostroma itself, and Pereslavl-Zalessky of the Vladimir Governorate. In 1944, the Yaroslavl Oblast got its current borders after the Kostroma Oblast became a separate region.
During the 1930s, like the rest of the country, the Yaroslavl Oblast went through rapid forced industrialization of the first five year plans. In 1935, construction of the Rybinsk dam began, it was followed by creation of the Rybinsk Reservoir, the largest man-made body of water on Earth at that time, that inundated the entire city of Mologa. By the early 1940s, the oblast became one of the most industrialized regions of Russia, its biggest economic centers were Yaroslavl (53% of the industrial output), Rybinsk (17%) and Kostroma (11%).
Economic growth was accompanied with social and cultural development. A number of higher education institutes, theaters, and a philharmonia were founded in Yaroslavl and Rybisnk. On the other hand, the region was also significantly affected with the political repressions of that time. During the period from 1918 to 1975, 18,155 people were given sentences for political crimes, including 2,219 sentenced to death.
Despite being a rear region in the course of the World War II, the Yaroslavl Oblast was still in danger of invasion. Many regional manufacturers were relocated eastwards, two strong lines of defense were constructed in the late 1941. Out of 500 thousand residents of the oblast sent to fight on the front lines, 200 thousand (1/10 of the entire population) did not return.
Right after the end of the war, the oblast went on to complete the old projects finishing the construction of the Rybinsk Hydroelectric Power Station and establishing new industries. Beginning with the late 1960s, the Poshekhonye brand of cheese received recognition throughout Russia. In 1979, Yarslavl became a regular host of now the oldest jazz festival in Russia, Jazz Nad Volgoi ("Jazz on Volga").
During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Yaroslavl CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.
The Charter of Yaroslavl Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Yaroslavl Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.
- Births: 15 144 (11.9 per 1000)
- Deaths: 20 141 (15.9 per 1000)
- Total fertility rate:
2009 - 1.49 | 2010 - 1.49 | 2011 - 1.48 | 2012 - 1.60 | 2013 - 1.64 | 2014 - 1.64(e)
Ethnic composition (2010):
- Russians - 96%
- Ukrainians - 0.8%
- Armenians - 0.6%
- Azeris - 0.4%
- Tatars - 0.4%
- Ezids - 0.3%
- Belarusians - 0.2%
- Others - 1.3%
- 51,001 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.
- Average: 63 years
- Males: 57 years
- Females: 71 years
According to a 2012 official survey 32.6% of the population of Yaroslavl Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 2% follows other Orthodox Churches, and 1% are Muslims. In addition, 34% of the population deems itself to be "spiritual but not religious", 15% is atheist, and 10.4% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.
The engineering and metalworking industry is the region's primary industrial sector, which supplies Russia with a wide variety of products. This industry is actively involved in foreign economic relations with CIS and other foreign countries.
Yaroslavl Oblast's greatest natural resources are water and forests. This part of Russia has enormous water reserves; Yaroslavl Oblast has 4327 rivers with a total length of nearly 20,000 km. There are also 83 lakes with total area of nearly 5,000 km2. The largest lakes are Nero Lake in Rostovsky District and Pleshcheevo Lake in Pereslavsky District. Pleshcheevo, Somino, Vashutinskoe, Chashnikovskoe, Ryumnikovskoe, and Lovetskoe lakes are located in the State Natural History Park. These lakes were formed from melting glaciers about 70,000 years ago. The region's mineral resource base includes brick clay and clay aggregate, gravel and sand-gravel mix, peat, and sapropel.
- Президент Российской Федерации. Указ №849 от 13 мая 2000 г. «О полномочном представителе Президента Российской Федерации в федеральном округе». Вступил в силу 13 мая 2000 г. Опубликован: "Собрание законодательства РФ", №20, ст. 2112, 15 мая 2000 г. (President of the Russian Federation. Decree #849 of May 13, 2000 On the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in a Federal District. Effective as of May 13, 2000.).
- Госстандарт Российской Федерации. №ОК 024-95 27 декабря 1995 г. «Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов. 2. Экономические районы», в ред. Изменения №5/2001 ОКЭР. (Gosstandart of the Russian Federation. #OK 024-95 December 27, 1995 Russian Classification of Economic Regions. 2. Economic Regions, as amended by the Amendment #5/2001 OKER. ).
- Official website of Yaroslavl Oblast. Sergey Alexeyevich Vakhrukov, Governor of Yaroslavl Oblast (Russian)
- Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal State Statistics Service) (2004-05-21). "Территория, число районов, населённых пунктов и сельских администраций по субъектам Российской Федерации (Territory, Number of Districts, Inhabited Localities, and Rural Administration by Federal Subjects of the Russian Federation)". Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года (All-Russia Population Census of 2002) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
- Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). "Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1" [2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1]. Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года (2010 All-Russia Population Census) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
- The density value was calculated by dividing the population reported by the 2010 Census by the area shown in the "Area" field. Please note that this value may not be accurate as the area specified in the infobox is not necessarily reported for the same year as the population.
- Правительство Российской Федерации. Федеральный закон №107-ФЗ от 3 июня 2011 г. «Об исчислении времени», в ред. Федерального закона №248-ФЗ от 21 июля 2014 г. «О внесении изменений в Федеральный закон "Об исчислении времени"». Вступил в силу по истечении шестидесяти дней после дня официального опубликования (6 августа 2011 г.). Опубликован: "Российская газета", №120, 6 июня 2011 г. (Government of the Russian Federation. Federal Law #107-FZ of June 31, 2011 On Calculating Time, as amended by the Federal Law #248-FZ of July 21, 2014 On Amending Federal Law "On Calculating Time". Effective as of after sixty days following the day of the official publication.).
- Official on the whole territory of Russia according to Article 68.1 of the Constitution of Russia.
- Russian Federal State Statistics Service (May 21, 2004). "Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек" [Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000] (XLS). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года [All-Russia Population Census of 2002] (in Russian). Retrieved August 9, 2014.
- Demoscope Weekly (1989). "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров" [All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers]. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года[All-Union Population Census of 1989] (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. Retrieved August 9, 2014.
- Arena - Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia. Sreda.org
- 2012 Survey Maps. "Ogonek", № 34 (5243), 27/08/2012. Retrieved 24-09-2012.
- Yaroslavl Region, Kommersant
- Media related to Yaroslavl Oblast at Wikimedia Commons
- Media related to Ярославская область at Wikimedia Commons
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Yaroslavl". Encyclopædia Britannica 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 907.
| 16
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|Born||Stepan Andriyovych Bandera
1 January 1909
Uhryniv Staryi, Galiсia, Austria-Hungary
|Died||15 October 1959
Munich, West Germany
|Nationality||Ukrainian, Austro-Hungarian, Soviet|
|Religion||Greek Catholic (excommunication)|
|Battles/wars||World War II|
Stepan Andriyovych Bandera (Ukrainian: Степан Андрійович Бандера; 1 January 1909 – 15 October 1959) was a Ukrainian political activist and leader of the Ukrainian nationalist and independence movement. Bandera is a controversial historical figure honoured by the contemporary Ukrainian nationalist movement, including the Right Sector and at the same time condemned by some ethnic Poles and Jews.
In 1934, he was arrested in Lwów (in Ukrainian, Lviv) by Polish authorities and was tried twice: for involvement in the assassination of the Polish minister of internal affairs, Bronisław Pieracki; and at a general trial of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists executives. He was convicted of terrorism and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment.
In September 1939, while Poland was being invaded, under unclear circumstances Bandera managed to get freed from prison and proceeded to work, with German support, for an uprising in the Kresy. These eastern Polish territories had a majority Ukrainian population, and went on to become modern Western Ukraine. At the same time, he tried to stoke unrest in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, modern Eastern Ukraine. His goal was to establish a unified Ukrainian state, composed of areas where the majority of inhabitants were ethnic Ukrainians, but that had been under the control of Poland and the Soviet Union.
On 30 June 1941, eight days after Germany's attack on the Soviet Union, Bandera in Lviv proclaimed an independent Ukrainian state. His militant branch of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) thought that, in their struggle against the Soviet Union, they had a powerful ally in Nazi Germany. But the Germans arrested the newly formed Ukrainian government and sent them to concentration camps in Germany. Bandera was imprisoned by the Nazis until September 1944.
At that juncture, with the war going very badly against Germany, Bandera was released in the hope that he would fight the advancing Soviet forces. He established his headquarters in Berlin and received German financial, material, and personnel support for his Ukrainian Insurgent Army.
Assessments of his work have ranged from totally apologetic to sharply negative. On 22 January 2010, the outgoing President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko awarded Bandera the posthumous title of Hero of Ukraine. The award was condemned by European Parliament, Russian, Polish and Jewish organizations and was declared illegal by the following Ukrainian government and a court decision in April 2010. In January 2011, the award was officially annulled.
Stepan Bandera remains a controversial figure today both in Ukraine and internationally.
- 1 Life
- 2 Political activism
- 3 Relationship with Nazi Germany
- 4 Postwar activity
- 5 Views towards other ethnic groups
- 6 Death
- 7 Legacy
- 8 References
- 9 External links
Born in the village of Uhryniv Staryi, in the Kalush District of Galiсia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in present day Ukraine, Stepan's father, Andriy Bandera, was the Greek-Catholic rite parish priest of Uhryniv Staryi. His mother, Myroslava, was also from an established clerical family, the daughter of a Greek-Catholic priest in Uhryniv Staryi.
Stepan spent his childhood in Uhryniv Staryi, in the house of his parents and grandparents.
In the spring of 1922, his mother died from tuberculosis of the throat.
In 1923, at the age of 14, Bandera joined the Ukrainian scout organization "Plast" (Ukrainian: Пласт). Later in his association with Plast, he became a member of the group Chornomortsi (Black Sea Sailors). Bandera received an unconfirmed 4 reprimands during his time as a yunak ("junior"), and is still considered[by whom?] an ideal Plast member.
After graduation from high school in 1927, he planned to attend the Ukrainian College of Technology and Economics in Podebrady in Czechoslovakia, but the Polish authorities did not grant him travel papers.
In 1928, Bandera enrolled in the agronomy program at the Lwów Polytechnika (today, Lviv Polytechnic).—one of the few programs open to Ukrainians at the time. This was due to restrictions placed on minority enrollment—aimed primarily at Jews and Ukrainians—in both secondary schools (gymnasia) and university level institutions by the Polish government.
During his secondary and tertiary education Bandera actively took part in a number of political groups with a nationalist agenda, including in one of the most active of such groups, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, the OUN (Ukrainian: Організація Українських Націоналістів).
Stepan Bandera had met and associated himself with members of a variety of Ukrainian nationalist organizations throughout his schooling—from Plast, to the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (Ukrainian: Українська Визвольна Організація) and also the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, the OUN (Ukrainian: Організація Українських Націоналістів). The most active of these organizations was the OUN, and the leader of the OUN was Andriy Melnyk.
Because of his determined personality, Stepan Bandera quickly rose through the ranks of these organizations, becoming the chief propaganda officer of the OUN in 1931, the second in command of OUN in Galicia in 1932–33, and the head of the National Executive or the OUN in 1933.
For Bandera, an inclusive policy of nation building was important and therefore, he focused on growing support amongst all classes of Ukrainians in Western parts of Ukraine. In the early 1930s, Bandera was very active in finding and developing groups of Ukrainian nationalists in both Western and Eastern Ukraine.
Stepan Bandera became head of the OUN national executive in Galicia in June 1933. He expanded the OUN's network in the Kresy, directing it against both Poland and the Soviet Union. To stop expropriations, Bandera turned OUN against the Polish officials who were directly responsible for anti-Ukrainian policies. Activities included mass campaigns against Polish tobacco and alcohol monopolies and against the denationalization of Ukrainian youth. He was arrested in Lviv in 1934, and tried twice: first, concerning involvement in a plot to assassinate the minister of internal affairs, Bronisław Pieracki, and second at a general trial of OUN executives. He was convicted of terrorism and sentenced to death.
According to various sources, Bandera was freed in September 1939, either by Ukrainian jailers after Polish jail administration left the jail, by Poles or by the Nazis soon after the German invasion of Poland.
Soon thereafter Eastern Poland fell under Soviet occupation. Upon release from prison, Bandera moved to Kraków, the capital of the Germany's occupational General Government. There, he came in contact with the leader of the OUN, Andriy Melnyk. In 1940, the differences between the opinions of the two leaders were strained and the OUN split into two factions—the Melnyk faction led by Andriy Melnyk, which preached a more conservative approach to nation-building, (also known as the OUN-M), and the Bandera faction led by S. Bandera, which supported a revolutionary approach, (also known as the OUN-B).
OUN(B) sought support in Germany's military circles, while the OUN(M) sought connections with its ruling clique. In November 1939 about 800 Ukrainian nationalists began training in Abwehr's military camps. In the first days of December, Bandera, without co-ordination with Melnyk, sent a courier to Lviv with directives for preparation of an armed uprising. The courier was intercepted by the NKVD, which had captured some of the OUN(M)'s leaders. Another such attempt was prevented in Autumn 1940.
Formation of Mobile Groups
Before the independence proclamation of 30 June 1941, Bandera oversaw the formation of so-called "Mobile Groups" (Ukrainian: мобільні групи) which were small (5-15 members) groups of OUN-B members who would travel from General Government to Western Ukraine and after German advance to Eastern Ukraine to encourage support for the OUN-B and establishing the local authorities ruled by OUN-B activists. This included printing out pamphlets and growing membership in OUN.
In total, approximately 7,000 people participated in these mobile groups, and they found followers among a wide circle of intellectuals, such as Ivan Bahriany, Vasyl Barka, Hryhorii Vashchenko, and many others.
Formation of the UPA
Relationship with Nazi Germany
Historian David Marples summarizes the intermittently close relationship between Bandera, the OUN and Nazi Germany as "ambivalent", tactical and opportunistic, with both sides trying to exploit the other unsuccessfully.
In the spring of 1941, according to the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and other sources, Bandera held meetings with the heads of Germany's intelligence, regarding the formation of "Nachtigall" and "Roland" Battalions. In spring of that year the OUN received 2.5 million marks for subversive activities inside the USSR.
On June 30, 1941, with the arrival of Nazi troops in Ukraine, Bandera and the OUN-B declared an independent Ukrainian State. Some of the published proclamations of the formation of this state say that it "will work closely with the National-Socialist Greater Germany, under the leadership of its leader Adolf Hitler which is forming a new order in Europe and the world and is helping the Ukrainian People to free itself from Moscovite occupation." - as stated in the text of the "Act of Proclamation of Ukrainian Statehood".
In 1941 relations between Nazi Germany and the OUN-B soured to the point where a Nazi document dated 25 November 1941 stated that "... the Bandera Movement is preparing a revolt in the Reichskommissariat which has as its ultimate aim the establishment of an independent Ukraine. All functionaries of the Bandera Movement must be arrested at once and, after thorough interrogation, are to be liquidated...". On July 5, Bandera was arrested and transferred to Berlin. On July 12, the president of the newly formed Ukrainian state, Yaroslav Stetsko, was also arrested and taken to Berlin. Although released from custody on July 14, both were required to stay in Berlin.
In September 1944 Bandera was released by [the German authorities] which hoped that he will incite the native populace to fight the advancing Soviet Army. With German consent Bandera set up headquarters in Berlin. Germans supplied OUN-B and UIA by air with arms and equipment. Assigned German personnel and agents trained to conduct terrorist and intelligence activities behind Soviet lines, as well as some OUN-B leaders, were also transported by air until early 1945.
According to Stephen Dorril, author of MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service, OUN-B was re-formed in 1946 under the sponsorship of MI6. The organization had been receiving some support from MI6 since the 1930s. One faction of Bandera's organization, associated with Mykola Lebed, became more closely associated with the CIA.
Views towards other ethnic groups
In May 1941 at a meeting in Kraków the leadership of Bandera's OUN faction adopted the program "Struggle and action for OUN during the war" (Ukrainian: "Боротьба й діяльність ОУН під час війни") which outlined the plans for activities at the onset of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union and the western territories of the Ukrainian SSR. Section G of that document –"Directives for organizing the life of the state during the first days" (Ukrainian: "Вказівки на перші дні організації державного життя") outline activity of the Bandera followers during summer 1941 In the subsection of "Minority Policy" the OUN-B ordered the removal of hostile Poles, Jews, and Russians via deportation and the destruction of their respective intelligentsias, stating further that the "so-called Polish peasants must be assimilated" and to "destroy their leaders."
In late 1942, Bandera's organization, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, was involved in a campaign of ethnic cleansing of Volhynia, and in early 1944, these campaigns began to include Eastern Galicia. It is estimated that nearly 70,000 Poles, mostly women and children along with unarmed men, were killed during the spring and summer campaign of 1943 in Volhynia by the OUN-Bandera which bears primary responsibility for the massacres.
Despite the central role played by Bandera's followers in the massacre of Poles in western Ukraine, Bandera himself was interned in a German concentration camp when the concrete decision to massacre the Poles was made and when the Poles were killed. According to Jaroslaw Hrycak, during his internment, from the summer of 1941, he was not completely aware of events in Ukraine and moreover had serious differences of opinion with Mykola Lebed, the OUN-B leader who remained in Ukraine and who was one of the chief architects of the massacres of Poles. Bandera was thus not directly involved in those massacres.
Unlike competing Polish, Russian, Hungarian or Romanian nationalisms in late imperial Austria, imperial Russia, interwar Poland and Romania, Ukrainian nationalism did not include antisemitism as a core aspect of its program and saw Russians as well as Poles as the chief enemy with Jews playing a secondary role. Nevertheless, Ukrainian nationalism was not immune to the influence of the antisemitic climate in the Eastern and Central Europe, that had already become highly racialized in the late 19th century, and had developed an elaborate anti-Jewish discourse. Two Halicz / Halych Karaites, Anna-Amelia Leonowicz (1925-1949) and her mother, Helena (Ruhama) Leonowicz (1890-1967), paradoxically, became members of the radical organisation of Ukrainian nationalists, Orhanyzatsiia Ukraїns'kykh Natsionalistiv (OUN). According to oral reports by the local Karaites, however, the Leonowicz women collaborated with the Ukrainian nationalists not of their own free will, but under compulsion, while being threatened by the latter.
The predominance of the Soviet central government, rather than the Jewish minority, as the principal perceived enemy of Ukrainian nationalists was highlighted at the OUN-B's Conference in Kraków in 1941 when it declared that "The Jews in the USSR constitute the most faithful support of the ruling Bolshevik regime, and the vanguard of Muscovite imperialism in Ukraine. The Muscovite-Bolshevik government exploits the anti-Jewish sentiments of the Ukrainian masses to divert their attention from the true cause of their misfortune and to channel them in a time of frustration into pogroms on Jews. The OUN combats the Jews as the prop of the Muscovite-Bolshevik regime and simultaneously it renders the masses conscious of the fact that the principal foe is Moscow." In May 1941 at a meeting in Kraków the leadership of Bandera's OUN faction adopted the program "Struggle and action of OUN during the war" (Ukrainian: "Боротьба й діяльність ОУН під час війни") which outlined the plans for activities at the onset of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union and the western territories of the Ukrainian SSR. Section G of that document –"Directives for organizing the life of the state during the first days" (Ukrainian: "Вказівки на перші дні організації державного життя") outline activity of the Bandera followers during summer 1941 In the subsection of "Minority Policy" the OUN-B ordered: "Moskali, Poles, and Jews that are hostile to us must be exterminated in this struggle, especially those who would resist our regime: deport them to their own lands, importantly: destroy their intelligentsia that may be in the positions of power ... Jews must be isolated, removed from governmental positions in order to prevent sabotage, those who are deemed necessary may only work with an overseer... Jewish assimilation is not possible." Later in June Yaroslav Stetsko sent to Bandera a report in which he indicated - "We are creating a militia which would help to remove the Jews and protect the population." Leaflets spread in the name of Bandera in the same year called for the "destruction" of ""Moscow", Poles, Hungarians and Jewry. In 1941-1942 while Bandera was cooperating with the Germans, OUN members did take part in anti-Jewish actions. German police at 1941 reported that "fanatic" Bandera followers, organised in small groups were "extraordinarily active" against Jews and communists.
In 1942 German intelligence concluded that Ukrainian nationalists were indifferent to the plight of the Jews and were willing to either kill them or help them, depending on what better served their cause. Several Jews took part in Bandera's underground movement, including one of Bandera's close associates Richard Yary who was also married to a Jewish woman. Another notable Jewish UPA member was Leyba-Itzik "Valeriy" Dombrovsky. According to a report to the Chief of the Security Police in Berlin dated March 30, 1942, "...it has been clearly established that the Bandera movement provided forged passports not only for its own members, but also for Jews.". The false papers were most likely supplied to Jewish doctors or skilled workers who could be useful for the movement.
When Bandera was in conflict with the Germans, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army under his authority sheltered many Jews and included Jewish fighters and medical personnel. In the official organ of the OUN-B's leadership, instructions to OUN groups urged those groups to "liquidate the manifestations of harmful foreign influence, particularly the German racist concepts and practices."
On 15 October 1959, Stepan Bandera collapsed outside of Kreittmayrstrasse 7 in Munich and died shortly thereafter. A medical examination established that the cause of his death was poison by cyanide gas. On October 20, 1959, Stepan Bandera was buried in the Waldfriedhof Cemetery in Munich. His grave was desecrated on 17 August 2014 by unknown vandals, who toppled the 1.8 m cross.
Two years after his death, on 17 November 1961, the German judicial bodies announced that Bandera's murderer had been a KGB defector Bohdan Stashynsky who acted on the orders of Soviet KGB head Alexander Shelepin and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev. After a detailed investigation against Stashynsky, a trial took place from 8 October to 15 October 1962. The sentence was handed down on 19 October in which Stashynsky was sentenced to eight years imprisonment. The Federal Court of Justice of Germany confirmed at Karlsruhe that in the Bandera murder, the Soviet secret service was the main guilty party.
His brother Aleksandr (who had a PhD in Political Economy from the University of Rome) and brother Vasyl (a graduate in Philosophy, Lviv University) were arrested and interned in Auschwitz, where they were allegedly killed by Polish inmates in 1942.
Andriy Bandera, Stepan's father was arrested in late May 1941 for harbouring an OUN member and transferred to Kiev. In 8 July he was sentenced to death and executed on the 10th. His sisters Oksana and Marta-Maria were arrested by the NKVD in 1941 and sent to a GULAG in Siberia. Both were released in 1960 without the right to return to Ukraine. Marta-Maria died in Siberia in 1982, and Oksana returned to Ukraine in 1989 where she died in 2004. Another sister, Volodymyra, was sentenced to a term in Soviet labour camps from 1946-1956. She returned to Ukraine in 1956. Stepan's brother Bohdan's fate remains unknown, as accounts vary: some sources[who?] say he was killed by the Gestapo in Mykolayiv in 1943, other sources[who?] say he was killed by the NKVD operatives in 1944, but to date even the family members have no definite information.
In an interview with Russian newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda in 2005, former KGB Chief Vladimir Kryuchkov claimed that "the murder of Stepan Bandera was one of the last cases when the KGB disposed of undesired people by means of violence."
In late 2006 the Lviv city administration announced the future transference of the tombs of Stepan Bandera, Andriy Melnyk, Yevhen Konovalets and other key leaders of OUN/UPA to a new area of Lychakivskiy Cemetery specifically dedicated to victims of the repressions of the Ukrainian national liberation struggle.
In October 2007, the city of Lviv erected a statue dedicated to Bandera. The appearance of the statue has engendered a far-reaching debate about the role of Stepan Bandera and UPA in Ukrainian history. The two previously erected statues were blown up by unknown perpetrators; the current is guarded by a militia detachment 24/7. On October 18, 2007, the Lviv City Council adopted a resolution establishing the "Award of Stepan Bandera."
On January 1, 2014 Bandera's 105th birthday was celebrated by a torchlight procession of 15,000 people in the centre of Kiev and thousands more rallied near his statue in Lviv. The march was supported by the far-right Svoboda party and some members of the center-right Batkivshchyna.
Attitudes in Ukraine towards Bandera
Bandera continues to be a divisive figure in Ukraine. Although Bandera is venerated in certain parts of western Ukraine, and 33% of Lviv's residents consider themselves to be followers of Bandera, in surveys of Ukraine as a whole he, along with Joseph Stalin and Mikhail Gorbachev, is considered among the three historical figures who produce the most negative attitudes. A national survey conducted in Ukraine in 2009 inquired about attitudes by region towards Bandera's faction of the OUN. It produced the following results: In Galicia (provinces of Lviv, Ternopil, and Ivano-Frankivsk) 37% had a "very positive" opinion of Bandera, 26% a "mostly positive" opinion, 20% were neutral, "mostly negative", 6% very negative, and 6% unsure. In Volhynia, 5% had a very positive opinion, 20% a mostly positive opinion, 57% were neutral, 7% were mostly negative, 5% very negative and 7% were unsure. In Transcarpathia 4% of the respondents had a very positive opinion, 32% a mostly positive opinion, 50% were neutral, none had a mostly negative opinion, 7% had a very negative opinion and 7% were unsure. In contrast, in central Ukraine (comprising the capital Kiev, as well as the provinces of Zhytomyr, Cherkasy, Chernihiv, Poltava, Sumy, Vinnytsia, and Kirovohrad) attitudes towards Bandera's faction of the OUN were 3% very positive, 10% mostly positive, 24% neutral, 17% mostly negative, 21% very negative and 25% unsure. In Eastern Ukraine (the provinces of Donetsk, Luhansk, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhia) 1% each had very positive or mostly positive attitudes towards Bandera's OUN, 19% were neutral, 13% mostly negative, 26% very negative and 20% unsure. In Ukraine's south (the Odessa, Mykolaiv and Kherson regions plus Crimea) 1% each were very or mostly positive, 13% were neutral, 31% mostly negative, 48% very negative and 25% were unsure. In Ukraine as a whole, 6% of Ukrainians had a very positive opinion, 8% a mostly positive opinion, 23% were neutral, 15% had a mostly negative opinion, 30% had a very negative opinion, and 18% were unsure.
Legacy of Bandera during the 2014 Crimean crisis and 2014 pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine
During the 2014 Crimean crisis and 2014 pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine pro-Russian Ukrainians, Russians (in Russia) and some Western authors alluded to the (in their opinion) bad influence of Bandera on Euromaidan protesters and pro-Ukrainian Unity supporters in justifying their actions. Russian media used this to justify Russia's actions. Putin welcomed the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation by declaring that he "was saving them from the new Ukrainian leaders who are the ideological heirs of Bandera, Hitler's accomplice during World War II". Pro-Russian activists claimed "Those people in Kiev are Bandera-following Nazi collaborators". And Ukrainians living in Russia complained of being labelled a "Banderite" (even when they were from parts of Ukraine where Bandera has no popular support). Groups who do idolize Bandera did take part in the Euromaidan protests, but were a minority element.
Hero of Ukraine award (annulled)
On January 22, 2010, on the Day of Unity of Ukraine, the then-President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko awarded to Bandera the title of Hero of Ukraine (posthumously) for "defending national ideas and battling for an independent Ukrainian state." A grandson of Bandera, also named Stepan, accepted the award that day from the Ukrainian President during the state ceremony to commemorate the Day of Unity of Ukraine at the National Opera House of Ukraine.
Reactions to Bandera's award vary. This award has been condemned by the Simon Wiesenthal Center and the Student Union of French Jews. On the same day, numerous Ukrainian media, such as the Russian language Segodnya, published articles in that regard mentioning the case of Yevhen Berezniak, a widely known Ukrainian Soviet World War II veteran, considering to renounce his own Hero of Ukraine title. The representatives from several antifascist organizations in neighboring Slovakia condemned the award to Bandera, calling Yushchenko's decision a provocation was reported by RosBisnessConsulting referring to Radio Praha. On February 25, 2010, the European Parliament criticized the decision by then president of Ukraine, Yushchenko to award Bandera the title of Hero of Ukraine and expressed hope it would be reconsidered. On May 14, 2010 in a statement, the Russian Foreign Ministry said about the award: "that the event is so odious that it could no doubt cause a negative reaction in the first place in Ukraine. Already it is known a position on this issue of a number of Ukrainian politicians, who believe that solutions of this kind do not contribute to the consolidation of Ukrainian public opinion".
On the other hand, the decree was applauded by Ukrainian nationalists, in western Ukraine and by a small portion of Ukrainian-Americans. On January 25, 2010, the head of the Czech Confederation political prisoners Nadia Kavalirova expressed support for the decision of the Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko to award the title of Hero of Ukraine to Stepan Bandera, stating "It is good that he (Yushchenko) made this step; many Czech politicians can draw lessons from it..."
On February 9, 2010, the Poland's Senate Marshal Bogdan Borusewicz said at a meeting with the head of Russia's Federation Council Sergei Mironov, that adaptation of the Hero title of Ukraine to Bandera is an internal matter of the Ukrainian government.
Taras Kuzio, a senior fellow in the chair of Ukrainian studies at the University of Toronto, has suggested Yushchenko awarded Bandera the award in order to frustrate Yulia Tymoshenko's chances to get elected President during the Ukrainian Presidential elections 2010.
President Viktor Yanukovych stated on March 5, 2010 he would make a decision to repeal the decrees to honour the title as Heroes of Ukraine to Bandera and fellow nationalist Roman Shukhevych before the next Victory Day, although the Hero of Ukraine decrees do not stipulate the possibility that a decree on awarding this title can be annulled. On April 2, 2010, an administrative Donetsk region court ruled the Presidential decree awarding the title to be illegal. According to the court's decision, Bandera wasn't a citizen of the Ukrainian SSR (vis-à-vis Ukraine).
On April 5, 2010, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine refused to start constitutional proceedings on the constitutionality of the President Yushchenko decree the award was based on. A ruling by the court was submitted by the Supreme Council of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea on January 20, 2010.
In January 2011, the presidential press service informed that the award was officially annulled. This was done after a cassation appeals filed against the ruling by Donetsk District Administrative Court was rejected by the Higher Administrative Court of Ukraine on January 12, 2011. Former President Yushchenko called the annulment "a gross error".
Honorary citizen titles
In 2010 and 2011, Bandera was named an honorary citizen of a number of western Ukrainian cities, including Nadvirna, Khust, Ternopil, Ivano-Frankivsk, Lviv, Zhovkva, Dubliany, and Rava-Ruska.
|This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2014)|
Staryi Uhryniv, Lviv, Ternopil, Ivano-Frankivsk, Kolomyia, Kozivka, Drohobych, Dubliany, Terebovlya, Berezhany, Boryslav, Buchach, Mykytyntsi, Mostyska, Sambir, Staryi Sambir, Stryi, Truskavets, Zalishchyky, Chervonohrad, Verbiv, Horodenka, Hrabivka, Seredniy Bereziv, Strusiv.
|This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2014)|
- Museum of Stepan Bandera in Dubliany
- Museum of Stepan Bandera in Volia-Zaderevatska
- Museum of Stepan Bandera in Staryi Uhryniv
- Museum of Stepan Bandera in Yahilnytsia
- Stepan Bandera Museum of Liberation Struggle (Музей Визвольної боротьби ім.Степана Бандери в Лондоні) in London, part of the OUN Archive
- The Bandera's Family Museum (Музей родини Бандерів ) in Stryi
|This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2014)|
- Stepan Bandera street in Lviv
- Stepan Bandera street in Lutsk (former Suvorovska street)
- Stepan Bandera street in Rivne (former Moskovska street)
- Stepan Bandera street in Kolomyia
- Stepan Bandera prospect in Ternopil (part of former Lenin prospect)
- Stepan Bandera street in Ivano-Frankivsk
- Stepan Bandera street in Chervonohrad (former Nad Buhom street)
- Stepan Bandera street in Berezhany (former Cherniakhovskoho street)
- Stepan Bandera street in Drohobych (former Sliusarska street)
- Stepan Bandera street in Stryi
- Stepan Bandera street in Kalush
- Stepan Bandera street in Kovel
- Stepan Bandera street in Volodymyr-Volynskyi
- Stepan Bandera street in Horodenka
- Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB, Basic Books, 1999. ISBN 0-465-00312-5, p. 362.
- How the KGB organized the assassination of Bandera. (Як КДБ організовував убивство Бандери)
- Довкола цієї контраверсійної постаті й донині точаться гострі суперечки, що супроводжуються розмаїттям оцінок: від різко негативних до суцільно апологетичних. D.Vyedeneyev O.Lysenko OUN and foreign intelligence services 1920s-1950s Ukrainian Historical Magazine 3, 2009 p.132– Institute of History National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine http://www.history.org.ua/JournALL/journal/2009/3/11.pdf
- Ukrainian: УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАИНЫ № 46/2010: О присвоении С.Бандере звания Герой Украины. President of Ukraine. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
- "Russia condemns Yushchenko for declaring Bandera a Hero of Ukraine". Voice of Russia. January 26, 2010. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
- , Simon Wiesenthal Center (January 28, 2010)
- Student Union of French Jews, (February 1, 2010)
- Narvselius, Eleonora (2012). "The 'Bandera Debate': The Contentious Legacy of World War II and Liberalization of Collective Memory in Western Ukraine". Canadian Slavonic Papers 54 (3–4): 469–490. ISSN 0008-5006.
- Рішенням суду президентський указ «Про присвоєння С.Бандері звання Герой України» скасовано, President.gov.ua. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
- Russia's Ukrainian minority under pressure, Al Jazeera English (25 April 2014)
A ghost of World War II history haunts Ukraine’s standoff with Russia, Washington Post (25 March 2014)
- "Murdered by Moscow. - Stepan Bandera, His Life and Struggle (by Danylo Chaykovsky)". Exlibris.org.ua. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- Ukrainian College of Technology and Economics in Podebrady
- "Bandera, Stepan". Encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- The Lemberg Mosaic (by Jakob Weiss), Alderbrook Press New York | date=2011-02-01
- (Polish) Janusz Marciszewski, Uwolnić Banderę, NaszeMiasto.pl
- "Мої життєписні дані" (автобіографія Степана Бандери) | Наші Герої - архів матеріалів і фотографій ОУН-УПА
- T. Snyder, Causes of Ukrainian Polish ethnic cleansing, Past&Present, nr 179, p. 205
- The Lemberg Mosaic, Jakob Weiss, Alderbrook Press NY (2011)
- Anna Reid, Borderland: a journey through the history of Ukraine, Phoenix, 2002, p. 158
- S. Karnautska, Portret bez retushi, L'vovs'kaya pravda, 8 May 1991, p. 2
- "Ukraine :: World War II and its aftermath - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х ч Ін-т історії України НАН України К. 2006 ISBN 966-02-2535-0
- By Sviatoslav LYPOVETSKY. "Eight decades of struggle /ДЕНЬ/". Day.kiev.ua. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- David Marples. (2007). Heroes and villains: creating national history in contemporary Ukraine . Central European University Press, pp. 150 and 161
- Організація українських націоналістів і Українська повстанська армія. Інститут історії НАН України.2004р Організація українських націоналістів і Українська повстанська армія, Раздел 1 http://www.history.org.ua/LiberUA/Book/Upa/1.pdf стр. 17-30
- І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. — Університет імені Шевченко, Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 (No ISBN)
- p.15 ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х ч Ін-т історії України НАН України К. 2006 ISBN 966-02-2535-0 - У владних структурах рейху знайшлися сили яки з прагматичних міркувань стали на захист бандерівців. Керівники гестапо сподівалися використовувати їх у власних цілях а керівники абверу а радянському тилу.
- "Ukrainian History - World War II in Ukraine". InfoUkes. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- Berkhoff, K.C. and M. Carynnyk 'The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Its Attitude toward Germans and Jews: Iaroslav Stets'ko's 1941 Zhyttiepys' in: Harvard Ukrainian Studies, vol. 23 (1999), nr. 3/4, pp. 149—184 .
- Завдання підривної діяльності проти Червоної армії обговорювалося на нараді під Берліном у квітні того ж року (1944) між керівником таємних операцій вермахту О.Скорцені й лідерами українських націоналістів С.бандерою та Я.Стецьком" D.Vyedeneyev O.Lysenko OUN and foreign intelligence services 1920s-1950s Ukrainian Historical Magazine 3, 2009 p.137– Institute of History National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine http://www.history.org.ua/JournALL/journal/2009/3/11.pdf
- БАНДЕРА Степан Андрійович at Institute of History - National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
- WEST GERMANY: The Partisan Monday, Nov. 02, 1959
- Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, p.338 [dead link]
- D.Vyedeneyev O.Lysenko OUN and foreign intelligence services 1920s-1950s Ukrainian Historical Magazine 3, 2009 p.137– Institute of History National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine http://www.history.org.ua/JournALL/journal/2009/3/11.pdf
- Dorril, Stephen, MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service, Simon and Schuster, 2002, pp. 224, 233
- Dorril, Stephen, MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service, Simon and Schuster, 2002, p. 236
- І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. – Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 (No ISBN p.111
- І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. – Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 (No ISBN p.56 .
- To Resolve the Ukrainian Question Once and For All: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ukrainians in Poland, 1943-1947, Timothy Snyder, Working Paper, Yale University, 2001
- Bandera - romantyczny terrorysta "Bandera - Romantic Terrorist, interview with Jaroslaw Hrycak. Gazeta Wyborcza, May 10, 2008.
- David R. Marples, Heroes and Villains, page 24
- Ukrainian Collaboration in the Extermination of the Jews during the Second World War: Sorting Out the Long-Term and Conjunctural Factors by John-Paul Himka, University of Alberta. Taken from The Fate of the European Jews, 1939-1945: Continuity or Contingency, ed. Jonathan Frankel (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), Studies in Contemporary Jewry 13 (1997): 170-89.
- p.16 "War Criminality: A Blank Spot in the Collective Memory of the Ukrainian Diaspora." Spaces of Identity 5, no. 1 (April 2005) by John-Paul Himka, University of Alberta.
- Mikhail Kizilov, The Karaites of Galicia: An Ethnoreligious Minority Among the Ashkenazim, the Turks, and the Slavs, 1772-1945, page 334
- Philip Friedman. "Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Nazi Occupation," in Philip Friedman and Ada June Friedman (eds.), Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust (New York: Conference on Jewish Social Studies, Jewish Publication Society of America, 1980). pp.179-180
- Меншинева політика. 16. Національні меншини поділяються на: а) приязні нам, себто членів досі поневолених народів; б) ворожі нам, москалі, поляки, жиди. а) Мають однакові права з українцями, уможливлюємо їм поворот в їхню батьківщину. б) Винищування в боротьбі, зокрема тих, що боронитимуть режиму: переселювання в їх землі, винищувати головно інтелігенцію, якої не вільно допускати до ніяких урядів, і взагалі унеможливлюємо продуку- вання інтелігенції, себто доступ до шкіл і т.д. Наприклад, так званих польських селян треба асимілювати, усвідомлюючи з місця їм, тим більше в цей гарячий, повний фанатизму час, що вони українці, тільки латинського обряду, насильно асимільовані. Проводирів нищити. Жидів ізолювати, поусувати з урядів, щоб уникнути саботажу, тим більше москалів і поляків. Коли б була непоборна потреба оставити, приміром, в господарськім апараті жида, поставити йому нашого міліціянта над головою і ліквідувати за найменші провини. Керівники поодиноких галузей життя можуть бути лише українці, а не чужині – вороги. Асиміляція жидів виключається. p.103-104 ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х ч Ін-т історії України НАН України К. 2006 ISBN 966-02-2535-0
- same text p.485-486 І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. — Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004
- Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, p.63 [dead link]
- Dr. Franziska Bruder "Radicalization of the Ukrainian Nationalist Policy in the context of the Holocaust" The International Institute for Holocaust Research No. 12 -June 2008 p.37 ISSN 1565-8643
- "робимо міліцію що поможе жидів усувати www.history.org.ua/LiberUA/Book/Upa/2.pdf Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, p.63 ]
- І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. – Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 (No ISBN p 324 "Народе знай Москва Польша, мадяри жидова- це твої вороги. Нищ їх"
- same text p.259 July p 576 December - ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х ч Ін-т історії України НАН України К. 2006 ISBN 966-02-2535-0
- Harvest of despair: life and death in Ukraine under Nazi rule by Karel Cornelis Berkhoff (2004)
- Philip Friedman, Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Nazi Occupation,
- Friedman Essays (1980). pg. 204
- Herbert Romerstein. "Divide and Conquer: the KGB Disinformation Campaign Against Ukrainians and Jews". Ukrainian Quarterly, Fall 2004. The Institute of World Politics. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- Richard Breitman. U.S Intelligence and the Nazis. Cambridge University Press. 2005. pg. 250
- Friedman, P. "Ukrainian-Jewish Relations During the Nazi Occupation, YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science v. 12, pp. 259–96, 1958–59".
- Leo Heiman, "We Fought for Ukraine - The Story of Jews Within the UPA", Ukrainian Quarterly Spring 1964, pp.33-44.
- Friedman Essays (1980). pg. 204. Among several Jews saved by UPA Friedman mentions a Jewish physician and his wife whom he knows in Israel who were saved by UPA, another Jewish physician and his brother who lived in Tel Aviv after the war
- Friedman Essays (1980). pg. 188
- The Partisan, Time (November 2, 1959)
- "Неизвестные опрокинули крест на могиле Степана Бандеры в Мюнхене". Ria Novosti. 17 August 2014.
- The Poison Pistol, TIME Magazine, December 01, 1961
- p.190 The Frankfurt Auschwitz trial, 1963-1965: genocide, history, and the limits Devin Owen Pendas Cambridge University Press
- Бандерштадт: місто Бандер №4 (231) 28 січня 2010р. http://www.gk-press.if.ua/node/512 http://www.gk-press.if.ua/node/512
- Stepan Bandera: Hero or Nazi sympathizer?, Kyiv Post (October 2, 2008)
- Myths from U.S.S.R. still have strong pull today, Kyiv Post (February 25, 2009)
- US intelligence perceptions of Soviet power, 1921-1946 by Léonard Leshuk, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0714653063/ISBN 978-0714653068 (page 229)
- Heroes and villains: creating national history in contemporary Ukraine by David R. Marples, Central European University Press, 2007, ISBN 9637326987/ISBN 978-9637326981 (page 234)
- "Information website of the Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group". Khpg.org. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- Events by themes: Monument to Stepan Bandera in Lvov, UNIAN photo service (October 13, 2007)
- Design by Maxim Tkachuk, web-architecture by Volkova Dasha, templated by Alexey Kovtanets, programming by Irina Batvina, Maxim Bielushkin, Sergey Bogatyrchuk, Vitaliy Galkin, Victor Lushkin, Dmitry Medun, Igor Sitnikov, Vladimir Tarasov, Alexander Filippov, Sergei Koshelev, Yaroslav Ostapiuk. "Корреспондент " Украина " События " Львов основал журналистскую премию имени Бандеры". Korrespondent.net. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- "Розпорядження №495". .city-adm.lviv.ua. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
- Events by themes: Celebration of 100 birth anniversary of Stepan Bandera in Zaporozhye (Zaporozhye), UNIAN photo service (January 1, 2009)
- Events by themes: Mass meeting, devoted to 100 birth anniversary of Stepan Bandera, in Stariy Ugriniv village, UNIAN photo service (January 1, 2009)
- Events by themes: Monument to Stepan Banderq and memorial complex the heroes of UPA were opened in Ivano-Frankivsk (Ivano-Frankivsk), UNIAN photo service (January 1, 2009)
- Events by themes: Kharkiv nationalists were disallowed to arrange a torchlight procession in honor of Bandera's birthday (Kharkiv), UNIAN photo service (January 1, 2009)
- Events by themes: Action "Stepan Bandera is a national hero" (Kiev), UNIAN photo service (January 1, 2009)
- 2009 Philatelic Issues - Stefan Bandera (1909-1959) The Ukrainian Electronic Stamp Album
- [dead link]
- Torchlight procession to honor Bandera taking place in Kyiv, Interfax-Ukraine (1 January 2014)
- Lviv hosts rally to mark 105th anniversary of Ukrainian nationalist leader Bandera, Interfax-Ukraine (1 January 2014)
- MP: Euromaidan exposed to neo-Nazi trends
- In Western Ukraine, Even Ethnic Russians Vote for Pro-Ukrainian Parties by Paul Goble, Eurasia Review. September 12, 2010
- Yaroslav Hrytsak. (2005). Historical Memory and Regional Identity. In Galicia: A Multicultured Land. Christopher Hann and Paul Robert Magocsi (Eds.) Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 185-209
- Ivan Katchanovski. (2009). Terrorists or National Heroes? Politics of the OUN and the UPA in Ukraine Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Political Science Association, Montreal, June 1–3, 2010
- Ukraine crisis: Does Russia have a case?, BBC News (5 March 2014)
- Stepan Bandera becomes Ukrainian hero, Kyiv Post (January 22, 2010)
- President Viktor Yushchenko awarded title Hero of Ukraine to OUN Head Stepan Bandera, Radio Ukraine (January 22, 2010)
- Events by themes: 91th [sic] anniversary of Collegiality of Ukraine, UNIAN (January 22, 2010)
- Ukraine. Rehabilitation and new heroes, EuropaRussia (January 29, 2010)
- WIESENTHAL CENTER BLASTS UKRAINIAN HONOR FOR NAZI COLLABORATOR, Simon Wiesenthal Center (January 28, 2010)
- (French) L'UEJF choquée par Ioutchenko, pour qui Bandera est un héros de l'Ukraine, UEJF, February 1, 2010
- Majot Vikhr by Vlad Bereznoi for Segodnya. January 22, 2010 (Russian)
- Czech political prisoners approve the adaptation of the Bandera's Hero award (Ukrainian)
- European parliament hopes new Ukraine's leadership will reconsider decision to award Bandera title of hero, Kyiv Post (February 25, 2010)
- Kommersant (May 14, 2010) (Russian)
- Analysis: Ukraine leader struggles to handle Bandera legacy, Kyiv Post (April 13, 2010)
- Ukrainians in New York take to streets to protest Russian fleet, Kyiv Post (May 6, 2010)
- Ukrainsky pohliad (Ukrainian view) February 9, 2010 (Ukrainian)
- Ivano-Frankivsk regional council calls on European Parliament to review resolution on Bandera, Kyiv Post (March 3, 2010)
- Gender bias, anti-Semitism contributed to Yanukovych's victory, Kyiv Post (March 18, 2010)
- Yanukovych to strip nationalists of hero status, Kyiv Post (March 5, 2010)
- Party of Regions proposes legal move to strip Bandera of Hero of Ukraine title, Kyiv Post (February 17, 2010)
- Donetsk court deprives Shukhevych of Ukrainian hero title, Kyiv Post (April 21, 2010)
- High Administrative Court dismisses appeals against illegal award of Hero of Ukraine title to Soviet soldiers, Kyiv Post (August 13, 2010)
- Ukraine court strips Bandera of Hero of Ukraine title, Top RBC (April 2, 2010)
- Ukraine court strips Bandera of Hero of Ukraine title because he wasn't citizen of Ukraine, Gzt.ru (April 3, 2010)
- Constitutional Court refuses to consider case on Bandera's title of Hero of Ukraine, Kyiv Post (April 12, 2010)
- Пресс-служба Януковича: Указ о присвоении Бандере звания Героя Украины отменен, Korrespondent.net. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
- Court: Ruling on Bandera legal, Kyiv Post (January 12, 2011)
- Update:Stepan Bandera is no longer a Hero of Ukraine, Kyiv Post (January 12, 2011)
- Yushchenko: No Bandera - no statehood, Kyiv Post (January 12, 2011)
- Nadvirna city council awards honorary citizen titles to Bandera, Shukhevych, Lenkavsky, Kyiv Post (March 25, 2010)
- (March 10, 2010)
- (April 30, 2010)
- (May 6, 2010)
- (May 7, 2010)
- Zhovkva awards title of honorary citizen to Bandera, Kyiv Post (January 26, 2011)
- Музей Визвольної боротьби ім. Степана Бандери в Лондоні
- Banderas' Family Museum — Stryj — Traveling in the Carpathians and around / Western Ukraine / Lviv region / Stryj district / Stryj / Museums / Banderas' Family Museum:
- Відкрито музей родини Бандерів (оновлено фото)
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stepan Bandera.|
- Article about the assassination of Stepan Bandera
- Stepan Bandera, His Life and Struggle
- Bandera's supporters ready for new battle (editorial) - Kyiv Post (March 11, 2010)
- Recorded speech by Stepan Bandera, Munich 1956 on YouTube
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Neulanghorst (also known as Neulaughorster Weide; now known as Orliniec; coordinates: 54.2038, 19.222 [54° 12′ 13″ N, 19° 13′ 19″ E]; population in 1905, 127; in 2012, 110) is located approximately 8 kilometres (5 miles) east of Nowy Dwór Gdański (Tiegenhof), 11 km. (7 mi.) north-west of Elbląg (Elbing), 22 km. (14 mi.) north-east of Malbork (Marienburg), and 43 km. (27 mi.) south-east of the regional capital Gdańsk (Danzig). It was situated south-east of Walldorf and Ober-Walldorf, south-west of Klein Mausdorferweide, north of Lakendorf, and north-east of Rosenort and Blumenort.
Neulanghorst was founded between 1703 and 1706. Until 1772 Neulanghorst was part of the Kingdom of Poland. The First Partition of Poland in 1772 resulted in the creation of a new province in 1773, called West Prussia, in which Neulanghorst was located. Neulanghorst was situated in the district (Kreis) of Elbing until the establishment of the Free City of Danzig in 1920. The village came under the control of Nazi Germany during World War II until February 1945, when it was occupied by Soviet forces and returned to Poland. In 2012 Neulanghorst (now Orliniec) was a village in the administrative district of Gmina Nowy Dwór Gdański, within Nowy Dwór Gdański County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland.
The 1776 Prussian census lists 13 Mennonite families in Neulanghorst with the following surnames: Barg, Brand, Doloeski, Driedger, Fast, Friesen, Martens, Neufeldt, Pauls, Peters, Wiens, and Zacharias. In 1820, the village had 166 residents, including 40 Mennonites.
Mennonites who were residents of Neulanghorst were members of the Rosenort Mennonite Church.
Stowarzyszenie Konserwatorów Zabytków. "Orliniec." Catalogue of Monuments of Dutch Colonization in Poland. 2005. Web. 20 November 2012. http://holland.org.pl/art.php?kat=obiekt&id=407&lang=en.
Wikipedia. "Orliniec, Pomeranian Voivodeship." Web. 20 November 2012. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orliniec,_Pomeranian_Voivodeship.
Wolf, Hans-Jürgen. "Familienforschung in Westpreußen." Web. 20 November 2012. http://www.westpreussen.de/cms/ct/ortsverzeichnis/details.php?ID=4686.
|Author(s)||Richard D Thiessen|
|Date Published||November 2012|
Cite This Article
Thiessen, Richard D. "Neulanghorst (Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland)." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. November 2012. Web. 29 Mar 2015. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Neulanghorst_(Pomeranian_Voivodeship,_Poland)&oldid=124528.
Thiessen, Richard D. (November 2012). Neulanghorst (Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland). Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 29 March 2015, from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Neulanghorst_(Pomeranian_Voivodeship,_Poland)&oldid=124528.
©1996-2015 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved.
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This article was published in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 5, (MUP), 1974
William Landsborough (1825-1886), explorer, was born on 21 February 1825 at Stevenston, near Saltcoats, Ayrshire, Scotland, son of Dr David Landsborough, clergyman, entomologist and artist, and his wife Margaret, née McLeish. Educated in Irvine, he migrated in 1841 to New South Wales where his elder brothers held two stations in New England. By 1850 an expert bushman he leased a near-by run and next year joined the gold rush to Bathurst with some success. In 1854 he followed his brothers north to Monduran, their station on the Kolan River, and with various partners applied for leases. He explored and named Mount Nebo in 1856 and later leased blocks in the area. He explored around Broad Sound in 1857, the Comet and Nogoa Rivers in 1858 and with Stewart examined the Bonar (Bowen) River in 1859. They reached Torrens Creek and looked carefully for traces of Ludwig Leichhardt. From Rockhampton he then went with Nat Buchanan in search of new pastures, and traced Aramac Creek and the Thomson River. Their food ran out but they found good country. In 1861 Landsborough applied for 15 runs of 100 sq. miles (259 km²) each and with Buchanan and Edward Cornish formed the Landsborough River Co. to stock the new 'Plains of Promise', which he named Bowen Downs. To raise capital he sold all his stations except Glenprairie near Broad Sound. He also mortgaged Bowen Downs to the Scottish Australian Co. through its agents, Robert Morehead and Matthew Young, thereby forfeiting his place in management of the stations, although he held a quarter of the shares until 1869.
In 1861 Landsborough was chosen by the Victorian and Queensland governments to lead a search for Robert O'Hara Burke and William Wills from the Gulf of Carpentaria southwards. In August the party left Brisbane in the brig Firefly, escorted by H.M.S. Victoria. In a cyclone the brig was driven on to a reef sixty miles (97 km) south-east of Cape York. The frightened horses were unable to escape until Landsborough had the deck 'cut down to the water's edge'; all but one managed to swim to a near-by island. When the sea calmed, the Victoria pulled the Firefly off the reef. After makeshift repairs the brig was reloaded and in October arrived at Sweers Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria. A depot was formed on the Albert River at the site of Burketown and in November the party of 8, including 4 Aboriginals, and 25 horses started south. Landsborough followed the Gregory River and named the Barkly Tableland but near the site of Camooweal found desert with a network of dry channels. Realizing that rain could flood the country and isolate his starving party, Landsborough struggled back to the Burketown depot in January 1862.
With supplies from the Victoria he led his men south, 'hopping' from river to river. They encountered hostile Aboriginals on the Barcoo and on the Warrego their rations were reduced to boiled greenhide. On 21 May they reached Williams's station and learned that Burke and Wills had perished. With bulging tucker bags Landsborough continued his journey south and in October delivered the horses and gear to the authorities in Melbourne. He was fêted as the first explorer to cross the continent from north to south. He reported to the Royal Society on his route and the quality of land he had seen and at a reception in the Exhibition Building was presented with inscribed plate valued at £500. Critics in the Brisbane press had claimed that his search for Burke was a secondary objective because he had been commissioned by graziers to find good land. He emphatically denied these charges but Journal of Landsborough's Expedition from Carpentaria (Melbourne, 1862) and Exploration of Australia from Carpentaria to Melbourne (London, 1866) publicly revealed the locations of the best country he had traversed. In 1862 his second-in-command, George Bourne, also published his journal of the expedition in Melbourne. These reports led to a frenzied rush into the gulf country.
At a function in Sydney Landsborough had met Caroline Hollingworth Raine. They were married on 30 December 1862 and left for Britain where he was given a gold watch by the Royal Geographical Society in London and visited relations. He returned to Brisbane to find that he no longer owned Glenprairie; no record of its sale could be traced but rumour had his attorney losing the station on a throw of dice. Landsborough had been nominated for life to the Legislative Council. He took his seat on 2 May 1865 but resigned on the 11th. After a week he was reappointed but resigned again on 23 September. He then became police magistrate and commissioner of crown lands in Carpentaria. He found Burketown full of thieves and criminals fleeing from the law, and reprisals against Aboriginals for killing sheep and cattle were common. To keep order he recommended Wentworth D'Arcy Uhr to lead a local band of native police. Appointed, he carried out his duties with zest but became truculent and even threatened to chain Landsborough to a tree like other law breakers. Other difficulties proliferated but the gulf townships prospered so rapidly that settlers began to boast that the area would soon become a separate colony. High officers in Brisbane proposed to appoint Landsborough government resident on the ground that he would then be able to make decisions without reference to the capital and thus prevent delays of at least three months. Unfortunately Landsborough and another magistrate made a mistake on the bench. Untrained and with no local lawyers to consult, they had decided a case against Uhr under the Masters and Servants Act instead of the Polynesian Labourers Act.
In September 1870 Landsborough was summarily dismissed as police magistrate and his name was struck off the roll of justices. Indignant residents in Carpentaria protested to the government on his behalf but in vain. On 24 March 1872 he left Burketown to defend himself in Brisbane but the quest was unsuccessful. He had lived too long in the bush to know any influential politicians. In 1872 the government appointed him to survey a road from St George to Cunnamulla and later commissioned him to clear the track. In sizzling heat twenty-three miles (37 km) of the road had been cut but he was dismissed for 'paying his men the enormous high wage of 10 pence per hour'. He went to Stanthorpe where tin had been newly found in large quantities; he did well by mining alluvial tin.
Landsborough's wife had died of tuberculosis, leaving three daughters. Though friends cared for them he longed to be with them and to his joy he was made an inspector in the new Brands Office. He collected his daughters and made a home at Toowong. Worried about the girls being alone while he was at work, he sought an introduction to Maria Theresa Carr, née Carter, whom he had seen in church. A gifted musician but inefficient in business, she welcomed his proposal and they were married at Brisbane on 8 March 1873.
In 1877 Landsborough was restored to the Commission of the Peace. On 27 September 1882 the government rewarded him with £2000 for his explorations. He used the money to buy a property, which he named Loch Lamerough, at Caloundra. Hardships as an explorer made him a sufferer from chronic indigestion. He died on 16 March 1886 and was buried on his land, survived by three daughters and three sons. In 1913 his widow had his remains moved to the Toowong cemetery where a monument is over his grave; another is near his first grave. His journals are in the Oxley Library, Brisbane. His name is commemorated in Queensland by a town and an inlet near Burketown. In 1862 a gold-mining town in Victoria was named in his honour.
Gwen Trundle, 'Landsborough, William (1825–1886)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/landsborough-william-3984/text6299, published first in hardcopy 1974, accessed online 28 March 2015.
This article was first published in hardcopy in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 5, (MUP), 1974
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This article was published in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 12, (MUP), 1990
George Lowe Sutton (1872-1964), agricultural scientist, was born on 23 October 1872 at Everton, Lancashire, England, son of Henry Hall Sutton, shipping agent, and his wife Ellen, née Lowe. George's widowed mother took him to New South Wales in 1882 where he attended Fort Street Model and Sydney Boys' High schools, on scholarships, and Sydney Technical College. He then went dairy-farming at Moorebank and worked in Queensland. In 1900 he was appointed experimentalist and later lecturer in agronomy at Hawkesbury Agricultural College where he became a friend of William Farrer. At Glenfield on 22 April 1896 Sutton had married English-born Ada Alice Everington; they were to have four daughters and two sons.
In 1905 Sutton opened and managed an experimental farm at Cowra to further the wheat-breeding work of the Department of Agriculture. After Farrer's death in 1906, Sutton took charge of wheat-breeding in New South Wales and of the experimental farms at Cowra and Coolabah. His developmental work in low rainfall areas led (Sir) James Mitchell, State minister for lands and agriculture, to appoint him agricultural commissioner for the Western Australian wheat belt. Sutton began duties in Perth in 1911. Bespectacled and serious, if at times a long-winded speaker, he was a dedicated administrator whose ideas had influence in political, industrial and community circles. He developed morale in his department, although his dominant personality and the government's periods of financial austerity caused some friction. The demand for advice and technical resources increased and Sutton was hard pressed to meet it. While needing highly qualified staff, it was not until 1921 when he became director of agriculture that he could implement a policy of government cadetships for undergraduates in agriculture at the University of Western Australia.
Severe droughts after 1911 had reduced seed wheat to critical levels and the responsibility for overcoming the situation fell upon Sutton. He converted State 'model' farms into experimental ones with the task of supplying commercial quantities of pure variety seed wheat and other crops to farmers; field days and public demonstrations were also held. Sutton continued his breeding work, using early generation crossbred material from New South Wales and emphasizing baking and milling quality, yield, resistance to disease and environmental suitability. In 1918 he released the Nabawa variety. Its qualities, particularly rust resistance, made it Australia's premier wheat until the 1930s when it was replaced by Bencubbin. Although Sutton's insistence on quality was not always appreciated because of inverse yield considerations, it eventually led to the formation of a national register of wheat varieties in 1927.
He endeavoured to modify the wheat selling system. The 'Fair Average Quality' standard used in Australia was based on samples from each State which were incorporated into a mixed bushel under supervision by State chambers of commerce. Sutton 'struck' the standard in Western Australia for many years. The commercial hiatus between harvest and striking of the yearly F.A.Q. standard was overcome by Western Australian legislation in 1935 which established the grade, 'W.A. Standard White'; it went further than the single bushel weight attribute of F.A.Q.
As early as 1914 Sutton had chaired a committee which reported on bulk handling of grain at farm, rail and port depots: it recommended that a standards board be established and that wheat be graded for export. A subsequent report in 1932 saw the formation of the Grain Pool of Western Australia and Co-operative Bulk Handling Ltd.
Sutton wrote on a wide variety of topics: many of his seventy papers in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales also appeared in the country press; he published over 110 papers in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Western Australia and in departmental bulletins; he conducted a large correspondence with farmers and spoke on radio. In 1952 he published Comes the Harvest.
A firm yet gentle father who managed his income frugally, Sutton was raised as a Wesleyan; he ceased being a churchgoer, but remained a teetotaller. Reading, carpentry, gardening, photography, walking and vinegar-making occupied his leisure. He belonged to the State committee of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, presided over the Royal Society of Western Australia, and was a fellow of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science and a member of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science.
In 1937, the year of his retirement, Sutton received an honorary doctorate of science in agriculture from the University of Western Australia; in 1951 he was appointed C.M.G.; in 1959 the flour millers and bakers of Western Australia gave him £815 for 'championing the improvement of Australian wheat, flour and bread'. Predeceased by his wife (d.1960), he died on 11 January 1964 in Royal Perth Hospital and was buried in the Methodist section of Karrakatta cemetery.
R. J. Moir, 'Sutton, George Lowe (1872–1964)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/sutton-george-lowe-8720/text15267, published first in hardcopy 1990, accessed online 30 March 2015.
This article was first published in hardcopy in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 12, (MUP), 1990
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Rose Gell Jacobs
A member of the original circle of women who established Hadassah, the Women’s Zionist Organization, in 1912, Rose Jacobs epitomized the spirit of American Zionist voluntarism. She gradually rose from a grass-roots organizer to the leadership of the organization, and came to play a central role in Zionist affairs worldwide.
Rose Gell Jacobs was born in September 1888 and, along with a brother and two sisters, was raised in New York City. She graduated from Columbia University and taught in the city’s public schools before marrying Atlanta attorney Edward Jacobs.
While raising their two children, Joshua and Ruth, Rose Jacobs helped create Hadassah chapters in Georgia, Tennessee, and Washington, D.C. In the process she gained recognition as an articulate and effective Zionist speaker. She was named editor of the national Hadassah News Bulletin in 1920, vice president of Hadassah shortly afterward, and acting president of the organization from 1920 to 1923, while Hadassah’s president and founder, Henrietta Szold, was in Palestine. Later Jacobs served two terms as president, from 1930 to 1932 and from 1934 to 1937.
During Jacobs’s second term, the Hadassah membership urged the organization to move away from its exclusive focus on medical projects in Palestine and take a more active role in assisting the Jews in Nazi Germany. Jacobs was dispatched to Palestine in 1935 to explore possible new directions for Hadassah activity there. She became enamored of the Youth Aliyah program, led by Szold, which facilitated the immigration of young German Jews to the Holy Land. Hadassah soon adopted Youth Aliyah, a decision that proved both a boon for fund-raising and a source of inspiration for Hadassah activists during the Nazi era. Brushing aside her colleagues’ fears for her safety, Jacobs traveled to Nazi Germany in the summer of 1936 to examine the plight of German Jewry firsthand and solidify Hadassah’s relationship with the Youth Aliyah program.
An active participant in international Zionist affairs, Jacobs was named to the Jewish Agency Executive in 1937. Under her leadership, Hadassah opposed the British Peel Commission’s 1937 Palestine partition plan, protesting the small size of the territory allotted to the proposed Jewish state. Jacobs was the only woman delegate to the St. James Conference in 1939, at which British, Arab, and Zionist leaders sought, unsuccessfully, to resolve the Palestine conflict.
Maintaining a prominent role in Hadassah affairs even after her terms as president, Jacobs was responsible for initiating the establishment of the Hadassah Hospital in 1939 on Mount Scopus, in Jerusalem. In 1940, she organized the Hadassah Emergency Committee in Palestine, which supervised the group’s Palestine affairs during the war years.
Jacobs, like many of her colleagues in the Hadassah leadership, was keenly interested in the subject of Arab-Jewish relations in Palestine. In the wake of Palestinian-Arab rioting and British restrictions on Jewish immigration in the late 1930s, Hadassah established the Committee for the Study of Arab-Jewish Relations, with Jacobs as its chair. It marked the first time that an American Zionist organization had taken an official interest in the problem of Arab-Jewish relations in Palestine. The committee, which operated until 1943, held private discussions on the subject and met with American experts on the Middle East and Zionist leaders from Palestine to discuss ways to alleviate Arab-Jewish tension.
After World War II, Jacobs assumed a senior role in the ESCO Foundation, which raised funds for industrial development in Palestine (later Israel).
Rose Gell Jacobs died in New York City on August 14, 1975.
AJYB 77:595; BEDAJ; EJ; Jacobs, Rose G. “The Beginnings of Hadassah.” In Early History of Zionism in America, edited by Isidore S. Meyer (1958), and Papers. Hadassah Archives, NYC; Miller, Donald H. “A History of Hadassah, 1912–1935.” Ph.D. diss., New York University (1968); Obituary. NYTimes, August 16, 1975, 22:5; UJE; WWIAJ (1938).
How to cite this page
Medoff, Rafael. "Rose Gell Jacobs." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on March 27, 2015) <http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jacobs-rose-gell>.
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Wiesloch (Badische staatliche Heil- und
Pflegeanstalt für Geisteskranke Wiesloch)
The Kinderfachabteilung in Wiesloch operated from at the end of October 1940
at the latest (the first child that had been admitted under Reichsausschuss
procedure was admitted in mid November 1940), until probably August 1941,
after no admissions to the ward had been made after April. It was the fifth
or sixth of all "special children's wards" to open, and the first to be
established in what is today the state of Baden-Wuerttemberg. Up to the late
1930s, the facility did not typically admit children among its patients (see
Peschke 2012, p. 603), and as at the time Dr. Schreck (see below) began his
appointment in October 1940, only a very small number of minors (at least
six) between the ages of 2 to 14 were patients, children, in as much they
were a physical presence on site, must have stood out somewhat, as did the
nurses of the Reichsausschuss, who had been delegated there from Berlin. The
clinic's director was Dr. Wilhelm Möckel, and the deputy director
and responsible for the Kinderfachabteilung was Dr. Arthur Schreck. After
Dr. Schreck found it impossible to continue with the killing personally, a
physician from the special children's ward in Eglfing-Haar, Dr. Fritz Kühnke (see Eglfing-Haar), came to carry out the
murders. After the war, Dr. Schreck was sentenced in Freiburg in 1950 to 12
years in prison, but he was pardoned by the governor of the state in 1954
and worked as a physician in Pfullendorf. He died there in 1963. Dr. Möckel
died in 1954.
The number of children who died in the special children's ward was
small. 13 small children who had been admitted by April 1941 had died
between March and August 1941; one of them after been transferred to the
special children's ward in Eglfing-Haar. According to Dr. Schreck, the
Kinderfachabteilung had been closed at the end of June 1941. Three of the
children were killed by Dr. Schreck; nine, by Dr. Kühnke.
Older children and youth also had been admitted to Wiesloch and
reported on questionnaires used for the T4 action; after the sudden stop to
T4 their status likely changed to "Reichsausschusskinder," and six of them
were transferred to the special children's ward in Kaufbeuren in December
1941 (four of them died there). This ended the collaboration between
Wiesloch and the Reichsausschuss.
At the beginning of the 1943, four children/youths were admitted to the
"research station" on site. It was directed by Dr. Carl Schneider of the
University of Heidelberg and autonomous from the Wiesloch hospital in
matters of organization, finance, and personnel. It existed between January
and March of 1943. Two of these four children/youths died there or shortly
after release, while two others were transferred to Emmendingen and then
Kaufbeuren, where one of them was killed.
Soon after the end of WWII the American major Leo Alexander, commissioned to
produce a report for the Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee,
visited Wiesloch and noted his impressions as well as the facts he
established in his report (see here: 1, 2, 3, 4). The full report contains an extensive appendix not
included in the version on the Internet (see Alexander 1945).
As has been argued in a new monograph on the subject matter (Janzowski
2015), the immediate afterwar period evinced few signs to come to terms with
the facility's Nazi past, at least in so far "children's euthanasia" was
concerned. In the context of the Grafeneck trial, a list of deceased
children was composed, but neither the slipshod denazification (civilian)
tribunals nor the Freiburg trial against Sprauer and Schreck, which led to
Sprauer's conviction for killing the children merely on charges of
manslaughter, nor the perfunctory subsequent investigations by the
Heidelberg state attorney's office or during the later trial against Kühnke prompted to a local response of
recognition of the victims (2015, pp. 383-406). As Janzowski shows, a report
in the local newspaper in 1950 about the Wiesloch asylum omitted any mention
of the murder of patients, as did a commemorative event on occasion of the
50th anniversary of the facility in 1955--in part because the personnel had
remained little changed with the end of WWII, relatives of victims may have
feared being tainted by their disclosing of a disability in the family, and
a general concern that the shaken trust in the facility as a provider of
medical and psychiatric care might suffer as a consequence of such
On occasion of the 40th anniversary of the transport of the first 42
mentally ill patients of the hospital Wiesloch to the T4 killing center
Grafeneck (see T4) in late February 1940 staff of the clinic assembled to
commemorate this event and to erect an almost 2 meter high wooden cross in
front of the hospital chapel, with the inscription "To the victims of the
'Program Merciful Death,'" and a first commemorative event took place. In
the same year, a pamphlet by the facility on occasion of its 75th
anniversary contained references to the "euthanasia" killings by way of
acknowledging the transfer of more than 1000 patients (to murder facilities
such as Grafeneck and Hadamar). Still, in 1986 a publication by the facility
stated that it was "still unclear whether a Kinderfachabteilung had existed
here" (Janzowski 2015, pp. 412-13).
In 1990, at the 50th anniversary of the above-mentioned event (the first
transport to Grafeneck), a larger audience witnessed the commemorative
event, and a heterogeneous group of staff, medical personnel, and
students formed as the "Committee Infirmary and Hospital Wiesloch During the
Period of National Socialism." It included the then medical director, Dr.
Hans Dieter Middelhof, who
actively supported their activities. The committee helped bring about a
variety of activities to shed light on the past, as well as create a
permanent memorial. A competition for a permanent memorial was held.
The memorial was established in April 1994, replacing the wooden cross. The
sculpture was created by artist Susanne Zetzmann. The inscription reads: "In
the years 1934 to 1945 more than 2,000 patients of the infirmary and
hospital Wiesloch were made to lose their dignity, [they were] mistreated,
and murdered. To them in commemoration, to us as a warning" (In den Jahren
von 1934 bis 1945 sind mehr als 2000 Patienten der Heil- und Pflegeanstalt
entwürdigt, misshandelt oder ermordet worden. - Ihnen zum Gedenken, uns zur
Mahnung). The iron sculpture has the form of a circle, with a
small ring broken off, tilted upward and sunken in in part. A possible,
suggested interpretation of the memorial's shape and form is that the larger
part symbolizes the majority (bystanders, supporters, perpetrators), while
the smaller part, which sinks somewhat into the soil, represents the
minority (victims), who remain anonymous and largely unknown. The memorial
does not address the victims of the children's ward in particular.
Since 1996, Germany has had a Day of Commemoration for the Victims of
National Socialism on 27 January, and for some years on this day a variety
of commemorative activities have taken place at the hospital Wiesloch,
although it does not appear that any one of them has been specifically
dedicated to the victims of the special children's wards.
The web page
of the clinic, today the Psychiatrisches Zentrum Nordbaden, openly and
frankly addresses the events during the Nazi period, and there is a flyer
on the topic of commemoration.. A local internet magazine has a detailed report on
commemorative activities in 2011 and includes a list of names: Walter Heid,
Georg Schlick, Rosemarie Walburga Jochim, Martin Heck, Doris Ueberrhein,
Ursula Haug, Doris Mader, Helmut Rilling, Anna Felicitat Schilling,
Friedrich Herrmann, Ingrid Porschitz and Waltraud Buck.
In 2011, Dr. Janzowski presented new insights into "children's euthanasia"
in the context of a memorial event (see here: 1, 2)
and published a book chapter on the current state of knowledge. Dr. Peschke
has published a monograph on the asylum at Wiesloch in 2012, and Dr.
Janzowski in 2015.
There is a stumbling block for Adelheid Bloch, an adult victim of T4 who was
transported from Wiesloch to Grafeneck: http://stolpersteine-konstanz.de/index.html?adelheid_bloch.htm.
A biography of another T4 victim who resided at the Wiesloch institution and
died at Grafeneck, Oskar Bornhäuser, has also recently been made available
Another stumbling block was dedicated to a child victim, Waltraud Buck, in
2012 (see here).
In January 2015 the dedication of new memorial occurred in close proximity
to the historical station MI, where the special children's ward was once
housed. The clinic has provided a detailed account (http://www.pzn-wiesloch.de/unser-zentrum/geschichte/kinderfachabteilung-1940-1941),
including references to two stumbling blocks for child victims who were
patients at Wiesloch (they were murdered elsewhere).
Source: Rhein-Neckar Zeitung
The memorial's designer is Elke Weickelt-Starzinski. The memorial consists
of a spiral path, "like a one-way street," that shows the footprints of 12
little feet in bronze and is bordered by 12 rose bushes, with a central
commemorative object, a plaque in bronze, in the middle. The inscription
reads: "In memory of the 12 children Anna, Doris, Friedrich, Helmut, Rosa,
Ursula, Waltraud, Georg, Ingrid, Rose-Marie, Walter, Doris who in 1941 were
murdered in a "special children's ward" of the Wiesloch asylum due to their
Alexander, Leo. 1945. "Public Mental Health Practices in Germany:
Sterilization and Execution of Patients Suffering from Nervous or Mental
Disease." Cios Item 24 Medical. Armed Forces Supreme Headquarters: Combined
Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee.
Arbeitskreis "Die Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Wiesloch in der Zeit des
Nationalsozialismus." 1992-1995. Schriftenreihe
Arbeitskreises "Die Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Wiesloch in der Zeit des
Nationalsozialismus. Wiesloch: Psychiatrisches Landeskrankenhaus
Wiesloch. Available here: vol. 1, 2, 3.
Benzenhöfer, Udo. 2003. "Genese
und Struktur der 'NS-Kinder- und Jugendlicheneuthanasie.'" Monatsschrift
für Kinderheilkunde 151: 1012-19.
Bornhäuser, Doris. 2013. Oskar
B.: Bruchsal 1899 - Grafeneck 1940: Eine biographische Annäherung.
Grafeneck: Gedenkstätte Grafeneck.
"Gedenken an Euthanasieopfer: 'Organisierte Selektion zum Tode.'" Localmatador.de 06 February 2011.
Available at http://www.lokalmatador.de/article/c06e3f61addc4e91b4ed590c4780e8d6/.
Janzowski, Frank. 2011. "Reichsausschusskinder und andere Minderjährige
in der Wieslocher Heil- und Pflegeanstalt 1940 bis 1944." Pp. 91-120 in Kindermord und "Kinderfachabteilungen" im
Nationalsozialismus: Gedenken und Forschung, edited by Lutz Kaelber
und Raimond Reiter. Frankfurt: Lang.
———. 2015. Die NS-Vergangenheit in der
Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Wiesloch: "... so intensiv wenden wir unsere
Arbeitskraft der Ausschaltung der Erbkranken zu." Ubstadt-Weiher:
Peschke, Franz. 2009. "Die Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Wiesloch im Dritten
Reich." Public lecture. Available at http://www.ag-landeskunde-oberrhein.de/index.php?id=p492v.
———. 2012. Ökonomie, Mord und
Planwirtschaft: Die Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Wiesloch im Dritten Reich.
Bochum: projekt verlag.
Puvogel, Ulrike, and Martin Stankowski. 1996. Gedenkstätten für
die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus, vol. 1. 2d ed. Bonn: Bundeszentrale
für politische Bildung. Available at http://www.bpb.de/files/5JOYKJ.pdf.
"Schreck, Arthur." Wikipedia
(German language) (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schreck)
Topp, Sascha. 2004. “Der ‘Reichsausschuss zur wissenschaftlichen Erfassung
erb- und anlagebedingter schwerer Leiden’: Zur Organisation der Ermordung
minderjähriger Kranker im Nationalsozialismus 1939-1945.” Pp. 17-54 in Kinder
in der NS-Psychiatrie, edited by Thomas Beddies and Kristina Hübener.
Berlin-Brandenburg: Be.bra Wissenschaft.
———. 2005. "Der 'Reichsausschuß zur wissenschaftlichen
Erfassung erb- und anlagebedingter schwerer Leiden': Die Ermordung
minderjähriger Kranker im Nationalsozialismus 1939-1945." Master's Thesis
in History, University of Berlin.
Last updated on 07 March 2015
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The Encyclopedia features over 1,700 biographies, 300 thematic essays, and 1,400 photographs and illustrations on a wide range of Jewish women through the centuries -- from Gertrude Berg to Gertrude Stein; Hannah Greenebaum Solomon to Hannah Arendt; the Biblical Ruth to Ruth Bader Ginsburg.
Berthe Bénichou-Aboulker was the first woman writer to have her work published in her country of birth, Algeria, whose generous land and mixed population she praised in Pays de flamme (Land of Flame).
Helen Caroline Bentwich (née Franklin) was born on January 6, 1892 in Notting Hill, London into a family of almost aristocratic Jewish lineage.
Berenice, daughter of King Agrippa I, queen of Chalcis, was married three times and then became the lover of the emperor’s son, Titus.
Known as the “Mother of Women’s Basketball,” Senda Berenson pioneered women’s basketball as the director of the physical education department at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts.
Margarete Berent was the first female lawyer to practice in Prussia and the second female lawyer ever licensed in Germany. In 1925 she opened her own law firm in Berlin. Not only was she the first female lawyer and the head of her own law firm, but she was also an ardent feminist and active in promoting opportunities for women.
For a generation of Americans, Gertrude Berg embodied Jewish motherhood in a series of radio, television, stage, and film performances. She is best remembered as the creative force behind the Goldbergs, a fictitious Jewish family who lived in an apartment at 1038 East Tremont Avenue in the Bronx. In addition to her matriarchal public persona, Berg was also a one of the first American women to work as a writer and producer of radio and television situation comedy.
Raissa Berg is an outstanding biologist and geneticist of international repute, a defender of human rights in the Soviet Union, an abstract painter and a writer.
In an article commemorating Jean-Paul Sartre written shortly after his death, Lili Berger emphasized his role as a writer engagé and observed: “Yes, he made mistakes, but what active person has not?” This description could easily fit Lili Berger herself. A prolific literary critic and essayist who wrote fiction, short stories and novels, Berger was also politically engaged. She wrote to educate, instruct, expose and memorialize.
It should come as no surprise that Gretel Bergmann could never forget Germany and everything that she had experienced in that country. But what is astonishing is that it was not the loss of a homeland but rather her exclusion from the Olympic Games that led her to complain. She felt she had had been deprived of “the thrill of a lifetime… simply because I was born as a Jew” and this is an indication of the important role sport played in her life.
One of the most successful and popular stage and screen actresses in pre-World War II Germany, “die Bergner,” as she was known, was born on August 22, 1897 in Drobycz, Austrian Galicia, to a merchant, Emil Ettel (d. 1934) and Anna Rosa (née Wagner).
Though not a published writer in her time, Hinde Bergner holds a special place in Yiddish literature by virtue of the fact that her memoir of family life in a late nineteenth century Galician shtetl is one of few extant Yiddish memoirs to describe the traditional Jewish family on the edge of modernity told from the perspective of a woman. Her intimate portrayal of matchmaking and marriage customs, the education of girls, Jewish occupations, information about period clothing and home furnishing, the spiritual life of Jewish women, generational tensions, and cross-cultural contacts results in a valuable document of Jewish social, family, and women’s history.
Leah Bergstein was the first of the choreographers in Palestine who at the beginning of the 1930s created festival dances at kibbutzim, attempting to depict life in pre-state Israel in general and on agricultural settlements in particular. The unique creation of festival pageants contributed greatly to the development of a genre of rural Israeli festival and holiday celebrations and the creation of the first Erez Israel dances.
“Hoy, hoy, Yefefia, bat harim Modinia.” “Aunt Libbie” Berkson, a pioneer of Jewish education, led this song every summer at the start of Friday night zemirot singing at Camp Modin for girls. Generations of campers who attended Camp Modin were influenced by her spirit and leadership.
Beatrice Berler returned to school at the age of forty-five and became an award-winning translator of Spanish-language novels and history. Her work as a literacy activist in the United States earned her national recognition.
The Berlin salons which developed in the late eighteenth century owed both their existence and the form of their development to Jewish women. These early salons were the result of a unique interrelation between the German enlightenment and Haskalah on the one hand and, on the other, young, educated Jewish women from well-to-do families, who were searching for a new role in life outside the patriarchal structures of their families. These salons have variously been criticized as a symptom of failing Jewish tradition or welcomed as a phenomenon of emancipation and acculturation.
A courageous, motivated pioneer in medicine, in the late 1800s Fanny Berlin became one of the first Jewish women to practice surgery in the United States.
Cora Berliner was an economist and social scientist who held leadership positions in several major Jewish organizations in Germany between 1910 and 1942. From 1912 to 1914, she was the secretary of the Association of Jewish Youth Organizations in Germany (Verband der Jüdischen Jugendvereine Deutschlands—VJJD), and from 1922 to 1924 she headed the organization. During her term of office, she consistently advocated for the rights of Jewish girls. As the Nazis came to power she was active in the League of Jewish Women (Jüdischer Frauenbund, JFB). Beginning in September, 1933 she held an important position in the Reich Representation of German Jews (Reichsvertretung der Deutschen Juden).
An exception in the entertainment industry, which is dominated by brash individuals in their twenties and thirties, Berman is a thoughtful fortyish mother of twins, best known for her work on Broadway and for bringing positive portrayals of women to television. She is also an entertainment executive renowned for bringing stability to desperately unstable situations.
In presenting her plurality as an Ashkenazi Jew, a Mexican, a woman and a playwright, Sabina Berman (b.1954 Mexico) accomplishes far more than simply allowing her readers to identify with her hybridity and search for self. She creates a space where fragmented memories are fleshed out by the imagination and the desire to recreate the past in order to make sense of the present.
From 1936 through 1938, while Clementine Bloch was articled to lawyers, she realized that she was interested in criminal law and after passing the bar examination in 1938, she indeed gained a reputation in criminal cases. From 1948 to 1975 she was as a UN librarian at the New York Public Library and in this capacity served as a liaison between the Library and the UN.
Already the best-known woman sociologist of her generation, she quickly became an important voice of American feminism.
Anne Bernays’s work as novelist and nonfiction writer is notable for its literary quality and as a running commentary on manners and customs.
In addition to being a concert pianist in demand throughout the world, Yara Bernette was also a teacher.
How to cite this page
Jewish Women's Archive. "Encyclopedia." (Viewed on March 26, 2015) <http://jwa.org/encyclopedia>.
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Soviet Peace Committee
Soviet Peace Committee (SPC, also known as Soviet Committee for the Defense of Peace, SCDP, Russian: Советский Комитет Защиты Мира) was a state-sponsored organization responsible for coordinating peace movements active in the Soviet Union. Soviet Peace Committee was founded in 1949 and existed until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.
History and activities
The Soviet Peace Committee was founded in August 1949. It was a member of the World Peace Council (an organization that was also founded in 1949). The inaugural meeting was called the First All-Union Conference of the Partisans of Peace or the all-Soviet Peace Conference.
The Soviet Peace Committee supported anti-war campaigns against the wars or militarization of the non-communist, Western countries, but failed to condemn similar actions originating from the USSR or its allies. For example, in 1962 during a World Peace Council conference in Moscow, the Committee strongly objected to criticism of Soviet resumption of nuclear testing and threatened with deportation non-aligned activists who wanted to distribute leaflets. In the early 1980s, it criticized the European Nuclear Disarmament (END) for its portrayal of the Soviet Union on the same level as NATO and the United States, arguing that while NATO deployment of nuclear missiles in Europe was "an aggressive policy", while the Soviet Union had the right to deploy such weapons. Some even saw the Committee as a front for the KGB.
Independent peace movements which operated without permission of the Committee were seen as suspect.
It gained a some independence during the liberalization of the Soviet Union (perestroika) in 1985-1991. In the last years of its existence, in the early 1990s, the organization's official publication, Vek XX i Mir (20th Century and Peace), previously aseen s a "reliable propaganda instrument", addressed issued controversial in the USSR, such as the death penalty, liberalism, human rights, totalitarianism and the Katyn Massacre.
The Soviet Peace Committee ceased to exist with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. In 1992 remnants of the Soviet Peace Committee were reorganized into the Federation for Peace and Conciliation.
Soviet Peace Committee had four chairmen:
- Nikolay Semenovich Tikhonov (1949–1979)
- Evgeny Fedorov (1979–1981)
- Yury Zhukov (1982–1987)
- Genrikh Borovik (1987–1991)
- Peace and disarmament, Progress Publishers, 1982
- SOVIET PEACE COMMITTEE
- Free Dictionary
- W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919-1963, by David Levering Lewis, p 545.
- Lawrence S. Wittner, The Struggle Against the Bomb: Volume Two, Resisting the Bomb: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1954-1970, Stanford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8047-2918-2, Google Print, p.317-318
- Michael Bess, Realism, utopia, and the mushroom cloud: four activist intellectuals and their strategies for peace, 1945-1989, University of Chicago Press, 1993, ISBN 0-226-04421-1, Google Print, p.142
- Matthew Evangelista, Unarmed Forces: The Transnational Movement to End the Cold War, Cornell University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8014-8784-6, Google Print, p.163
- Paul Cooke, Jonathan Grix, East Germany: continuity and change, Rodopi, 2000, ISBN 90-420-0579-3, Google Print, p.113
- Michael McFaul, Sergei Markov, The troubled birth of Russian democracy: parties, personalities, and programs, Hoover Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8179-9232-4, Print, p.301
- Peter Vincent Pry, War scare: Russia and America on the nuclear brink, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 0-275-96643-7, Google Print, p.143
- Herman Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet literature, 1917-1991, Rowman & Littlefield, 1997, ISBN 0-8476-8322-2, Google Print, p.224
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They say talk is cheap. But in fact it can be devastatingly expensive. Among the generation of Germans who were enthralled by Hitler's eloquence, millions paid with their lives and their children's lives for empowering this demagogue to lead them to ruin and infamy.
Germany before Hitler was one of the more tolerant nations in Europe. That was what attracted so many Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe-- tragically, to their doom.
German immigrants who settled around the world have been among the more tolerant peoples-- not angels, a standard that only intellectuals could use, but comparing favorably with most others.
Do not for one moment think that we are either intellectually or morally superior to those Germans who put Hitler in power. We have been saved by our institutions and our traditions-- the very institutions and traditions that so many are so busy eroding or dismantling, whether in classrooms or court rooms or in the halls of Congress and the White House.
Talk matters for good reasons as well as bad. Anyone familiar with the desperate predicament of Britain in 1940, when it stood alone against the Nazi juggernaut that had smashed whole nations in weeks or even days, knows how crucial Winston Churchill's command of the English language was to sustaining the national will, which was the margin between survival and annihilation.
Unfortunately, people on the make seem to have a keener appreciation of the power of words, as the magic road to other power, than do people defending values that seem to them too obvious to require words.
The expression, "It goes without saying. . ." is a fatal trap. Few things go without saying. Some of the most valuable things in life may go away without saying-- whether loved ones in one's personal life or the freedom or survival of a nation.
Barack Obama is today's most prominent example of the power of words. Conversely, the understated patrician style of country club Republicans is no small part of their many problems.
It is no accident that by far the most successful Republican politician of our lifetime-- Ronald Reagan-- was a man who did not come from that country club background but someone who was born among the people and who knew how to communicate with the people.
Words can shield the most blatant reality. Legislation to take away workers' rights to a secret ballot, when deciding whether or not they want to be represented by a labor union, is called the "Employees' Freedom of Choice Act."
The merits or demerits of this legislation have seldom been debated. Who could be against "freedom of choice"?
The Obama administration's new budget, with deficits that make previous irresponsible deficits look like child's play, has a cover that says "A New Era of Responsibility."
You want responsibility? He'll give you the word "responsibility." Why not? It costs nothing.
Some observers are contrasting last week's highly successful speech by President Obama to Congress with the lackluster Republican response afterwards by Governor Bobby Jindal of Louisiana.
People familiar with Governor Jindal have a high regard for him and many think he would make a good president. But Republicans have always had more people who would make good presidents than people who would make good presidential candidates. So long as we have a democracy, that distinction is crucial.
Governor Jindal made a typical Republican mistake when he began with a "me too" celebration of Obama's "historic" election. With a very limited time to address some complex issues, he needed to get right to the point and sober up such members of the audience as were capable of being sobered up.
He was, in a sense, defensive, as if he had to establish that he was a good guy. General Douglas MacArthur gave a one-word definition of defensive warfare: defeat.
There can be too many words, as well as too few. Governor Sarah Palin is doing herself no good by discussing her disastrous interview with Katie Couric. That does not look presidential, or even senatorial. A quarterback has to forget the interception he threw last time, and just make a better throw next time.
Despite Amending The Bill, Montana Democrats Still Oppose Pro-Second Amendment Referendum | Matt Vespa
Ex-Clinton Aide Had Secret Intelligence Network, Raises Questions If Hillary Used This 'Undisclosed Back Channel’ | Matt Vespa
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