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RELATED,ESTABLISHED state in iptables What do the words 'RELATED' and 'ESTABLISHED' individually signify in RELATED,ESTABLISHED state in iptables? How many connected graphs over V vertices and E edges? Is there a way to calculate the number of simple connected graphs possible over given edges and vertices?   Eg: 3 vertices and 2 edges will have 3 connected graphs But 3 vertices and 3 edges will have 1 connected graph  Then 4 edges and 3 will have 4 connected graphs  Till such values...it is easy to see its  V choose E  But what about when the number of vertices are less than number of edges...how to calculate then?  I am not able to visualize that  Can it be a variation of the Stars and Bars problem  Like...number of ways 7 edges(balls) can be connected to (kept in) 5 vertices(bags) such that no vertex(bag) is isolated (is empty)  Here maybe we might have to consider the number of edges twice as each edge needs two vertices... how to not commence a command depending on player health? What is involved in converting a PC video card to have boot screen on the Mac? I've got a PC video card that I'd like to get boot screen support for on my Mac Pro. In particular, it is a Gigabyte R9 270X. The card is supported on the Mac once it boots, but I would like to get boot screen back since my old 8800GT has been baked in the oven a few too many times by now :-)  I've seen numerous guides on the internet about flashing the BIOS on the video cards and also ones that speak about adding the EFI BIOS, but in the haphazard forum approach, it isn't clear how this all works. To some degree, I've recently come away with the notion that you don't get rid of the existing BIOS, but rather add an EFI partition to it that the Mac would recognize. If that assumption is correct, then it would lead me to believe that adding an EFI BIOS that works on a similar card (R9 280X or 7950 which are both close but not quite) should work since I'm assuming that the existing BIOS would be similar enough to hook in. Failing that, I'm not clear how you would get a card-specific EFI BIOS for boot screen support.  Anyone an expert on this? I'm just really having a hard time trying to sift through all this and hoping to get a more direct answer! What is the difference between 'su -' , 'sudo bash' and 'sudo sh'? I would like to know what is the difference between    su - sudo bash sudo sh   I cannot login as root while doing su - because I do not have the root password - I mean I have my user password with which I can sudo "command"  but this password does not work for su - I can log in as root with sudo bash with my user password and I can login while doing sudo sh but then I get a command prompt in this form # Limit $c^n n!/n^n$ as $n$ goes to infinity Let $c&gt;0$ be a real number. I would like to study the convergence of $a_n := c^n n!/n^n$, when $n \to \infty$, in function of $c$.   I know (from  question) that $n!&gt;(n/e)^n$, so that $c^n n!/n^n&gt;1$ for $c ≥e$. But this doesn't imply that the sequence goes to infinity. And I'm not sure what to do for $c&lt;e$. I tried usual tests (D'Alembert...), without any success. I would like to avoid using Stirling approximation.  Thank you for your help! How can I convert a string of bytes into an int in python?   Say like this: 'y\xcc\xa6\xbb'  I came up with a clever/stupid way of doing it:  sum(ord(c) &lt;&lt; (i * 8) for i, c in enumerate('y\xcc\xa6\xbb'[::-1]))   I know there has to be something builtin or in the standard library that does this more simply...  This is different from  for which you can use int(xxx, 16), but instead I want to convert a string of actual byte values.  UPDATE:  I kind of like James' answer a little better because it doesn't require importing another module, but Greg's method is faster:  &gt;&gt;&gt; from timeit import Timer &gt;&gt;&gt; Timer('struct.unpack("&lt;L", "y\xcc\xa6\xbb")[0]', 'import struct').timeit() 0.36242198944091797 &gt;&gt;&gt; Timer("int('y\xcc\xa6\xbb'.encode('hex'), 16)").timeit() 1.1432669162750244   My hacky method:  &gt;&gt;&gt; Timer("sum(ord(c) &lt;&lt; (i * 8) for i, c in enumerate('y\xcc\xa6\xbb'[::-1]))").timeit() 2.8819329738616943   FURTHER UPDATE:  Someone asked in comments what's the problem with importing another module. Well, importing a module isn't necessarily cheap, take a look:  &gt;&gt;&gt; Timer("""import struct\nstruct.unpack("&gt;L", "y\xcc\xa6\xbb")[0]""").timeit() 0.98822188377380371   Including the cost of importing the module negates almost all of the advantage that this method has. I believe that this will only include the expense of importing it once for the entire benchmark run; look what happens when I force it to reload every time:  &gt;&gt;&gt; Timer("""reload(struct)\nstruct.unpack("&gt;L", "y\xcc\xa6\xbb")[0]""", 'import struct').timeit() 68.474128007888794   Needless to say, if you're doing a lot of executions of this method per one import than this becomes proportionally less of an issue. It's also probably i/o cost rather than cpu so it may depend on the capacity and load characteristics of the particular machine. What are logic gates? Determine if wire in switch box is safe to re-purpose? I need to pull a neutral wire to my light switch for a smart switch.  It's presently switching an outlet that I don't need switched, and the other side of the outlet already has unswitched power.  My plan is to use a smart switch, which requires neutral, to control a different device wirelessly.    I can't feasibly run a new wire, because the wires aren't run through conduit.  Instead, my plan is to repurpose the switched wire to get neutral from the outlet.    The switch, which controls an outlet has two wires, one black and one red.  The switched outlet has a white neutral wire, plus the red and black wires that I assume run directly to the switch.  I've completely disconnected the red and black wires from the outlet and the switch.  The black wire is measuring 120V AC when measured against ground using the box as ground, both at the outlet and at the switch. Using my DMM, the red wire is measuring 24V AC with respect to the box/ground at both sides.  I assume this is a  caused by induction from the charged black wire over to the floating red wire.    Our house is ~100 years old and this particular switch seems to be run using armored cable (note the paper wrap around each wire.)  There are literally only two wires in the switch box; no wire nuts.    If relevant, we do have some old knob and tube wiring active, but I'm pretty confident there's none on this circuit.  Is there some way I can determine with enough confidence that the red wire isn't connected elsewhere such that I can know it's safe to connect the red wire at the outlet to netural? Using iOS 5 rich text editor How can I break an align environment for a paragraph? I would like to have two displayed equations, broken by a short paragraph, but with aligned equal signs (as if using the align environment).  Is there some way to "break" the align environment temporarily? Electric charge is lorentz invariant I know that electric charge is lorentz invariant quantity and I can easily think of experiment to check that. Is a though experiment that can prove that also? Show Log of the Sql statements that QGIS generates to retrieve Data from Postgis Is there a ways to  - make QGis log its generated SQL Statement or to - force POSTGIS to log all interaction with QGIS?  There is something strange happening to the WFS layer I retrieve in QGIS, since it does  not select all data available in the respective database table. I need to find out, what criteria QGIS chooses in order to narrow down the select set. Prefer composition over inheritance? Why prefer composition over inheritance?  What trade-offs are there for each approach?  When should you choose inheritance over composition? Automorphism of rational numbers Let $\mathbb Q$ be group of rational numbers under addition.  Then I want to find out the automorphism group of $\mathbb Q$. In a book it is given that Aut($\mathbb Q$) is isomorphic to $\mathbb Q^*$, the  multiplicative group of rational numbers. I stuck in this. Need help with proof for Dedekind cuts on $\mathbb{Q}^+$ I am working on a proof about Dedekind cuts on the positive rational numbers. I have been stuck for a while on the following point and would appreciate any help.  Given $x\in \mathbb{Q}^+$ such that $x^2&lt;2$, how to find $y\in \mathbb{Q}^+$ such $y&gt;x$ and $y^2&lt;2$? Why is $2\pi i \neq 0?$ We know that $e^{\pi i} = -1$ because of de Moivre's formula. ($e^{\pi i} = \cos \pi + i\sin \pi = -1).$  Suppose we square both sides and get $e^{2\pi i} = 1$(which you also get from de Moivre's formula), then shouldn't $2\pi i=0$? What am I missing here? I am looking for an adjective, similar to "holding a grudge" I am looking for an adjective that describes a person who is not willing to forgive or excuse someone's faults or wrong-doings from the past (other than "unforgiving"). For the ones who speak German, that word would be "nachtragend". What is the difference between "I am done" and "I am through"? I installed Android studio some time ago using the following suggested method:     To set up Android Studio on Linux:      Unpack the downloaded Tar file,   android-studio-ide--linux.zip, into an appropriate location   for your applications. To launch Android Studio, navigate to the   android-studio/bin/ directory in a terminal and execute studio.sh. You   may want to add android-studio/bin/ to your PATH environmental   variable so that you can start Android Studio from any directory.   Follow the links to install the SDK outside of the Android Studio   directories.   For whatever reason it has become corrupt and insists I must un-install and re-install. I can't for the life of me find how to un-install it however.  I didn't use apt-get so I can't do apt-get remove.  Does anyone have any suggestions?